FRICTION  AND  LUBRICATION. 


A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 


ON 


FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  FATS  AND  OILS, 


INCLUDING 


THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  LUBRICATING  OILS,  LEATHER  OILS, 

PAINT  OILS,  SOLID  LUBRICANTS  AND  GREASES,  TOGETHER 

WITH  NUMEROUS  FORMULAS;  MODES  OF  TESTING 

OILS,  AND  THE  APPLICATION  OF  LUBRICANTS. 


BY 

EMIL  F.  DIETERICHS, 

MEMBER  OF  THE  FRANKLIN  INSTITUTE,  PHILADELPHIA,   MEMBER  OF  THE 

NATIONAL  ASSOCIATION  OF  STATIONARY  ENGINEERS,  AND  INVENTOR 

OF  THE  DIETERICHS  "VALVE-OLEUM"  LUBRICATING  OILS. 


SECOND  EDITION,   THOROUGHLY  REVISED  AND   ENLARGED. 


PHILADELPHIA : 

HENEY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO., 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,  BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS, 

810  WAI  NUT  STREET. 

1916. 


COPYRIGHT,  BY 

EMIL  F.  D1ETERICHS, 

1916 


V 

V 


PREFACE  TO  THE  SECOND  EDITION. 


THE  exhaustion  within  a  comparatively  short 
time  of  the  first  edition  of  "  A  Practical  Treatise 
on  Friction,  Lubrication,  Fats  and  Oils"  and  the 
constant  demand  for  it,  are  the  best  evidence  that 
it  has  given  satisfaction,  and  no  apology  is  there- 
fore necessary  for  presenting  the  second  edition. 

While  but  few  alterations  have  been  made  in 
the  text  of  the  book  and  no  essential  portions 
have  been  omitted,  it  has  been  thoroughly  re- 
revised  and  considerable  new  matter,  particularly 
a  number  of  useful  formulas  for  lubricants  from 
abroad,  has  been  introduced,  as  well  as  a  review 
of  the  efforts  and  progress  made  during  the  last 
decade  in  the  petroleum  industry. 

I  wish  to  state  that  I  cordially  agree  with  the 
timely  criticism  the  editor  of  "The  Petroleum 
News  ",  published  in  Cleveland,  Ohio,  has  made 
about  the  lamentable  lack  of  proper  facilities  in 
the  laboratories  of  colleges  and  schools  of  science 
for  more  practical  instruction  for  young  students 
of  chemistry  to  make  researches  on  a  scientific 
basis  of  the  petroleum  industry  so  valuable  to  the 
prosperity  of  the  country.  Congressional  action  is 
(v) 

340276 


VI  PREFACE    TO    THE    SECOND    EDITION. 

too  slow  and  too  indifferent,  but  moneyed  phil- 
anthropists could  ingratiate  and  distinguish 
themselves  by  the  foundation  and  endowment  of 
a  practical  laboratory  conducted  by  able  chemists 
in  conjunction  with  intelligent  practical  oil  men, 
where  investigations  of  progressive  conceptions 
could  be  tested  and  developed  on  a  practical  scale. 

Many  rich  men  have  obtained  their  wealth  not 
by  improvements  conceived  by  them,  but  by 
speculations  on  the  commercial  value  of  the 
petroleum  industry. 

E.  F.  DIETERICHS. 

CLEVELAND,  OHIO. 
December,  1915. 


PREFACE  TO  THE  FIRST  EDITION. 


FROM  observation  during  a  period  of  nearly 
fifty  years  as  a  practical  Chemist  and  Manufac- 
turer of  Chemical  Products  and  all  kinds  of  Oils, 
and  my  close  connection  with  Engineers  and 
Manufacturers,  and  experience  with  the  endless 
varieties  of  Engines  and  Machinery  in  use,  I  have 
long  felt  the  need  of  some  work  that  would  collec- 
tively treat  in  a  condensed  and  comprehensive 
form  the  subjects  of  Friction,  Lubrication,  the 
origin  and  characteristics  of  Fats  and  Oils,  their 
Uses,  their  Adulterations  and  their  Practical 
Testing,  all  of  such  vital  importance  in  the 
mechanical  world. 

In  the  effort  to  produce  a  book  to  fill  these 
wants  and  make  it  useful  as  well  as  easily  under- 
stood by  Mechanics  and  Manufacturers  not  very 
familiar  with  these  subjects,  I  have  throughout 
avoided  as  much  as  possible  all  scientific  technol- 
ogy, as  well  as  technical  terms  and  theories 
familiar  only  to  the  experienced  chemist,  and 
have  endeavored  to  write  in  such  language  and 
manner  as  can  be  readily  comprehended  by  any- 
body with  an  ordinary  school  education, 
(vii) 


Vlll  PREFACE    TO    THE    FIRST    EDITION. 

I  would  here  take  occasion  to  acknowledge  the 
endorsement  given  to  my  former  writings  and  to 
my  lectures  on  these  subjects,  and  to  the  generous 
patronage  extended  to  my  "  valve-oleum  "  lubri- 
cating oils. 

My  theories  on  lubrication,  which  led  to  the 
production  of  the  "  valve-oleum "  oils,  at  first 
met  with  much  derision.  But  notwithstanding 
the  fact  that  I  have  made  many  efforts  to  arouse, 
by  my  publications  and  lectures,  more  attention 
to,  and  to  elicit  information  upon,  the  subject, 
thus  far  no  sound  argument  has  been  advanced 
to  refute  these  theories  or  to  uphold  those  other 
ones,  older  and  long  persistently  held. 

Should  I  have  been  successful  in  producing 
such  a  treatise  as  will  meet  the  demands  of  the 
time — and  with  this  faith,  I  hereby  dedicate  this 
volume  to  manufacturers,  and  mechanics,  and  to 
my  brother  engineers  of  the  National  Association 
of  Stationery  Engineers  of  America — I  shall  feel 
myself  amply  repaid  for  my  labor. 

As  is  the  practice  of  the  publishers,  the  book 
has  been  supplied  with  a  full  table  of  contents 
and  a  thorough  index,  rendering  reference  to  any 
subject  in  it  prompt  and  accurate. 

E.  F.  DIETERICHS. 
CLEVELAND,  OHIO, 
September  15,  1906. 


CONTENTS. 


i. 

FRICTION. 

PAGE 

Definition  of  friction  ;  Various  kinds  of  friction  ;  Explana- 
tion of  the  law  of  friction  ......  1 

Co-efficient  of  friction,  and  rule  for  finding  it ;  Friction  of 
quiescence  ;  Friction  of  motion  ;  Rolling  friction  .  .  2 

Friction  of  a  cart  on  a  macadamized  road  ;  Friction  on  a 
railway;  Value  and  usefulness  of  friction  ;  Frictional 
heat 3 

II. 

LUBRICATION. 

Necessity  of  lubricating;  What  is  lubricating;  Laws  of 
lubrication  as  taught  by  nature 4 

Lubrication  of  the  joints  of  the  bones  in  the  body  by  the 
joint  water  .........  5 

Absorption  of  frictional  heat  by  metal ;  Effect  of  over- 
heating the  bearings  ;  Creation  of  frictional  heat  as  shown 
by  Count  Rumford's  experiments  .  .  •  .  •  .6 

Accumulation  and  disposal  of  frictional  heat;  Capacity  of 
inert  matter  for  absorbing  and  carrying  away  frictional 
heat  .  .  ^^  . A— 7 

Necessity  of  renewing  the  lubricant     .....       8 

Lubrication  a  chemical  process ;  The  chemical  process 
which  takes  place  when  oil  is  used  for  lubricating  .  .  9 

Why  oil  and  fatty  matter  are  used  for  lubricating ;  Absorp- 
tion of  frictional  heat  by  water  and  ice  .  .  .  .  10 

Use  of  molasses  for  lubricating  machinery;  Conclusion         .     11 

(ix) 


X  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 
III. 

OILS  AND  FATS. 

Definition  of  oils  ;  Classes  of  oils  ;  Fixed  oils ;  Volatile  or 
essential  oils  .  .  .  .  .  ..  .  .12 

Drying  oils  ;  Non-drying  or  fatty  oils  ;  Fatty  oils  in  general 
use  for  lubricating  and  in  the  manufacture  of  lubricants.  13 

Mineral  oils  and  petroleum  oils,  and  their  constitution       .     14 

Manner  of  obtaining  mineral  oils;  Nature  of  petroleum  oils.     15 

IV. 

OILS  AND  FATS   OF  MINERAL  AND  VEGETABLE  ORIGINS, 
THEIR  PREPARATION,  AND  How  THEY  ARE  OBTAINED. 

Lard  and  lard   oil ;    Preparation  and  properties  of  lard ; 

Separation  of  olein  from  lard  .         .         .         .         .         .16 

Lard  oil  and  its  properties  ;  Commercial  grades  of  lard  oil ; 

Tallow  and  tallow  oil ;  Mode  of  obtaining  tallow  .  .  17 
Tallow  oil  and  its  properties  ;  Neatsfoot  oil  and  horse  tal- 
low oil  ;  Neatsfoot  oil  and  its  properties  .  .  .  .18 
Bone  fat,  bone  grease,  and  marrow  tallow  ;  Horse  tallow 

and  its  properties;  Elain  or  red  oil  and  its  properties  .  19 
Spermaceti  and  fish  oils ;  Spermaceti,  its  constitution  and 

properties  .........  20 

Sperm  oil  and  its  properties 21 

Seal  oil;  Whale  and  train  oils  ;  Commercial  fish  oils  .  22 
Wool  fat,  degras  ;  Modes  of  obtaining  wool  fat  .  .  .  23 
Mode  of  obtaining  degras ;  Factitious  degras ;  Castor  oil 

and  its  properties     ........     24 

Olive  oil  and  its  properties        ......     25 

Sunflower  oil        .........     26 

Sesame  or  gingelly  oil  ;  Cottonseed  oil  and  its  properties.    .     27 
Rapeseed  or  colza  oil ;  Hempseed  oil  .        .         .         .         .28 

Palm  oil  and  cocoanut  oil ;  Copra ;  Palm  oil  or  palm 

butter  ;  Almond  oil          .         .         .         .         .         .         .29 

Poppyseed  oil ;  Corn  oil     .         .         .         .         •   ,.  .  •         .30 

Peanut  oil  and  its  properties  .  .  •  •  •  .31 


CONTENTS.  xi 

PAGE 

Mustardseed  oil  ;  Nigerseed  oil :  Linseed  oil  .  .  32 

Linolein;  Driers;  Uses  of  linseed  oil  .  .  .  .33 
Receipts  for  the  manufacture  of  German  soft  soap;  Green 

German   soap;  Preparation  of  liquor  of  potassa;  Green 

soap  from  hempseed  oil    .         .         .         .         .         .         .34 

Transparent  linseed  oil  soap         .         .         .         .         .         .35 

Transparent  soft  soap  in  the  semi-cold  way  .  .  .36 

Soft  linseed  oil  soap  with  a  yield  of  450  per  cent.  .  .  37 
Rosin,  rosin  oil  and  turpentine;  Mode  of  obtaining  rosin, 

and  its  properties     ........     38 

Distillation  of  rosin  oil;  Oil  of  turpentine;  Rosin  or  pine 

oil,  and  its  properties;  Glycerin,  and  its  properties         .     39 

V. 
CLARIFYING,  REFINING  AND  BLEACHING  OILS  AND  FATS. 

Various  processes  of  bleaching  vegetable  oils;  Clarifying 

oils. 41 

Refining   oils   by  treatment  with  sulphuric  acid;  Refining 

oils  and  fats  with  caustic  soda  .  .  .  .  .42 
Bleaching  with  chlorine;  Deodorizing  oil  .  .  .  .43 
Bleaching  and  deodorizing  degras  .....  44 
Cleaning  and  bleaching  tallow  and  other  fat;  Cleaning  and 

bleaching  and  deodorizing  train  oil  .  .  .  .45 
Bleaching  grease;  Action  of  fats  and  oils  on  metals  .  .  46 

VI. 
MINERAL  OILS. 

Mode  of  obtaining  mineral  oils;  Distillation  of  mineral  oil.  48 
Green  oil,  and  its  treatment;  Paraffine  oil;  Treatment  of 

shale  oil;  Grades  of  illuminating  oils  .  .  .  .49 
Tar  oils;  Distillation  of  wood  and  products  obtained 

thereby 50 

Products  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  tar  from  gas  works; 

Difference   between   benzol   and  benzine;  Conversion  of 

nitro-benzol  into  aniline  oil;  Uses  of  coal  tar   .         .         .51 


Xii  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 
VI. 

PETROLEUM  OILS. 

Deposits  of  petroleum;  Petroleum  oils  of  Pennsylvania       .     52 
Ohio  crude  oils  and  manner  of  desulphurizing  them;  Use 

of  aluminium  chloride  as  a  desulphurizing  agent     .         .58 
Distillation  of  petroleum    .......     54 

Classification  of  the  proceeds  of  distillation         .         .         .55 
Neutral  distillates  and  their  division  .         .         .         .         .56 

Purifying  and  bleaching  the  neutral  oils;  Extraction  of  par- 
affine  wax  from  crude  paraffine  oils.         .         .         .          *     57 

Uses  of  paraffine  wax:  Golden  machine  oil;  Steam  refined 
cylinder  oil;    Production  of  a   good   cylinder  oil   from 
crude  oil         .........     58 

Black  lubricating  or  West  Virginia  oil;  Filtered  cylinder 
stock;  Vaseline,  cosmoline,  petrolatum;  Petroleum  oils 
for  various  lubricating  purposes  .  .  .  .  .59 

Uses  of  petroleum 60 

Deblooming  petroleum  oils          ......     61 

Deodorizing  petrol  oil 62 

VIII. 
MANUFACTURE  or  LUBRICATING  OILS. 

Lubricants  for  heavy  pressure  and  low-speed  machinery.     .     63 
Compounding    petroleum   oils  to  give  them  a  viscous  con- 
sistency; Compounding   cylinder   oil;  Use   of  degras   in 
compounding  cylinder  oil        .         .         .         .         .         .64 

Compounding  engine  and  machinery  oil;  Various  fats  and 

oils  used  in  the  compounding  of  cylinder  and  other  oils.     65 
Use  of  rosin  oils  in  compounding  lubricating  oils         .         .     66 
Receipts  of  lubricants  used  in  Germany;  Cohesion  oils  .     .     67 
Lubricants  for  threshing  machines;  Automobile  oil;  Min- 
eral oil  lubricants   ........     68 

Sewing  machine  oil;  Lubricants  for  ice  machines;  Lubri- 
cating oils  with  rosin  oils         ......     69 

Thickened  oils  .  70 


CONTENTS.  Xlll 

PAGE 

IX. 

"  VALVE-  OLEUM"  OILS. 

Materials  which  form  the  foundation  of   "Valve-Oleum" 

oils .         .     71 

Preparation  of  oleate  of  alumina 72 

Table  of  proportions  of  caustic  soda  to  grease  or  oils  for 
oleate  of  soda  in  the  manufacture  of  the  Valve-Oleum 
lubricating  oils        .         .         .         .         •         •         •         .73 
Preparation  of  a  heavy  and  stringy  mineral  castor       .         .     75 
Preparation  of  ''Valve-Oleum"  engine  and  cylinder  oils     .     76 
Preparation  of  white  ''Valve-Oleum"  castor  oil,  "Valve- 
Oleum"     castoroleum,   or    commercial    castor    oil,    and 
"  Valve-Oleum"  linoleum        .         .         .         .         •         .     7i 
Origin  of  ; 'Valve-Oleum"  oils    .         .         .        .         .        .78 

X. 

LEATHER  OILS. 

Necessity  of  lubricating  leather  belts,  harness,  boot  and 

shoe  leather 80 

Oil  for  tanners'  use;  Cheap  harness  oil;  Black  harness  oil; 

Good  belt  oil 81 

Belt  grease;  Fluid  adhesion  fat 82 

Factitious  paint  oil;  Cheap  paint  oil 83 

XI. 

ADULTERATIONS  OF  FATTY  OILS. 

Materials  used  in  the  adulteration  of  lard  oil,  olive  oil, 

sperm  oil,  linseed  oil                          .         .         •         •         .84 
Adulteration  of  castor  oil  .     -"-,-  — 85 

XII. 

TESTING  OILS. 

Alkali  tests  for  detecting  the  presence  of  hydrocarbon  oil  in 
fatty  oils        .         .         .        ...         •         •         -86 


XIV  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

To  ascertain  the  amount  of  mineral  oil  in  fatty  oils;  Color 
test 87 

Test  for  cottonseed  oil  in  lard  oil;  Preliminary  test  for 
neutral  oil  in  lard  oil;  Detection  of  small  quantities  of 
fatty  oils  in  mineral  oil;  Detection  of  soap  dissolved  in 
mineral  oil  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .88 

Detection  of  acidity  or  alkali  in  mineral  oil;  Simple  and 
practical  methods  for  testing  oils  and  oil  mixtures  .  .  89 

Detection  of  the  admixture  of  petroleum  in  large  propor- 
tions to  a  fatty  oil;  Mode  of  ascertaining  with  what  pro- 
portion of  petroleum  a  fatty  oil  has  been  adulterated  .  91 

Mode  of  telling  the  presence  of  petroleum  in  fatty  oils,  even 
in  very  small  proportions;  Means  employed  to  prevent 
the  detection  of  adulterations  of  fatty  oils  by  the  hydro- 
meter test 92 

Testing  the  comparative  efficiency  of  oils  for  lubricating; 
Viscosity,  and  mode  of  ascertaining  it  .  .  .  .93 

Cold  test;  Fire  test 94 

Test  frequently  used  for  cylinder  oil;  Simple  way  of  testing 
lubricating  oils  ........  95 

Practical  tests  of  lubricating  oils 96 

Necessity  of  cleaning  cylinders  and  bearings  before  testing 
and  using  a  new  oil  .  .  .  .  .  .  .97 

Advantage  of  the  stringy  character  of  "Valve-Oleum"  oils; 
Detection  of  oleate  of  alumina  in  mineral  oil  .  .  .  98 

XIII. 
SOLID  LUBRICANTS.     GREASES. 

Constitution  of  solid  lubricants  and  their  application;  Con- 
stitution of  grease 100 

Character  of  machinery  for  which  solid  lubricating  grease  is 
used;  Wear  and  abrasion  of  the  metal  with  grease  lub- 
ricants; Addition  of  inert  matter  to  grease  .  .  .  101 

Manufacture  of  greases;  Preparation  of  lime  paste  for  rosin 
grease  f  f  ........  102 


CONTENTS.  XV 

PAGE 

Preparation  of  rosin  grease  in  the  cold  way;  Formulas  after 
wliich  nearly  all  grease  lubricants  are  manufactured  .  103 

Piv  pa  ration  of  cup  grease,  dark  axle  grease,  linseed  oil 
grease  .  ;........  104 

Palm  oil  grease;  Yellow  axle  grease;  Axle  grease  prepared 
in  the  cold  way  ........  106 

XIV. 

SOME  PRACTICAL  SUGGESTIONS. 

Cause  of  injuries  to  a  cylinder;  Lubrication  not  effected  by 
inert  matters  .........  108 

Decomposition  of  all  fatty  oils  and  fats  by  the  absorption  of 
steam  and  frictional  heat;  Injurious  action  from  the  use 
of  tallow  in  cylinders 109 

Small  marble-like  balls  formed  by  the  motion  of  the  piston; 
Consequences  of  the  softening  and  dissolving  of  hardened 
deposits;  Other  causes  of  injury  in  cylinders  .  .  .110 

Injury  to  cylinders  by  poor  packing;  Causes  of  cutting  and 
scarring  the  metal;  Cutting  of  metal  by  acid  in  oil .  .111 

Necessity  of  keeping  clean  and  carefully  examining  the 
parts  of  machinery  where  oil  is  used  for  lubricating  .  112 

XV. 

LUBRICATORS  AND  CUPS. 

Troubles  to  engineers  caused  by  lubricators;  Pumps  for  ap- 
plying cylinder  oil  .  .  .  .  .  .113 

Automatic  pumps;  The  Moses  pump;  Feeding  cylinder  oil 
through  the  sight-feed  cup;  Principle  on  which  sight- 
feed  cups  are  devised;  Cleaning  sight-feed  cups  .  .114 

Consequence  of  cleaning  the  cup  by  blowing  live  steam 
through  it  .........  115 

Regulating  the  flow  of  oil  in  the  cups;  Cups  which  feed 
with  a  wick;  Cups  separated  with  a  metallic  stem  .  .116 

Cups  for  feeding  grease       .         .         .         .         .         .         .117 

Only  reliable  lubricating  with  grease  ,  118 


XVI  CONTENTS. 

PAGE 

XVI. 

SPECIFIC  GRAVITY. 

Definition  of  specific  gravity;  Standard  for  solid  and  liquid 
bodies;  Mode  of  ascertaining  the  specific  gravity  by  the 
Baume"  hydrometer  .......  120 

Table  of  Baum^  degrees,  the  specific  gravity  they  repre- 
sent, and  the  corresponding  weight  of  the  liquids  per 
gallon 121 

XVII. 

REVIEW  or  THE  PETROLEUM  OIL  INDUSTRY  TO  1915. 

The  best  information  on  the  petroleum  oil  industry  pub- 
lished thus  far;  Early  impressions  as  to  where  petroleum 
oil  could  be  found 124 

Transformation  of  prehistoric  vegetation  and  animal  life; 
Separation  of  the  component  parts  of  petroleum  by  dis- 
tillation  125 

Products  for  commercial  purposes  obtained  by  distillation; 
Application  of  petroleum  oils  and  gasoline  as  motive 
power 126 

Formation  of  new  crude  oil  compounds  by  destructive  dis- 
tillation of  distillates  of  petroleum  oils;  The  cracking 
process  ..........  127 

How  the  full  amount  of  gasoline  can  be  procured  from  a 
given  amount  of  petroleum  oil;  Little  improvement  in 
the  production  of  lubricating  oils  during  the  last  decade.  128 

Introduction  of  the  ''Valve-Oleum  Oils;  Improvement  in 
the  production  of  paraffine;  Lack  of  encouragement  to 
inventors  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  .  129 

Fallacy  of  the  claim  to  be  able  to  change  the  characteristics 
of  petroleum  oils  so  as  to  produce  from  them  aniline  oils.  130 

Index  .  131 


I. 


FRICTION. 

THE  force  which  is  felt  to  resist  the  motion 
when  one  body  rubs  against  another  while  in 
motion  is  called  friction.  Of  all  mechanical 
power  used,  a  large  amount  is  spent  or  lost  to 
overcome  the  obstructive  force  of  friction,  and 
means  are  looked  for  to  reduce  this  as  much  as 
possible.  Friction  is  either  sliding  or  rolling. 
The  laws  regarding  friction  are  explained  as 
follows : 

When  placing  a  block  of  wood  or  iron  on  a 
smooth  surface  of  wood  or  metal,  it  requires  a 
force  of  some  two-fifths  of  the  weight  of  the  block 
to  make  it  move  along  the  surface,  thereby  indi- 
cating the  friction  between  the  surface,  as  has 
been  established  by  carefully  conducted  experi- 
ments. It  has  been  established  that  two  such 
blocks  placed  on  the  plate  side  by  side,  so  as  to 
form  one  of  double  size,  require  double  the  force 
to  move  them,  and  when  the  blocks  are  placed  on 
top  of  each  other,  there  is  no  difference  in  the 
amount  of  force  necessary  to  move  them.  The 
friction  between  any  two  surfaces  increases  in 


"S"*'  FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS    AND    FATS. 

proportion  to  the  force  with  which  they  are 
pressed  together,  regardless  of  the  extent  of  the 
surface  in  contact.  A  difference,  however,  exists 
when  wood  on  iron,  iron  on  iron  or,  iron  on  brass 
press  on  each  other.  For  oakwood  on  iron,  the 
moving  force  required  is  about  two-fifths,  or  ex- 
actly thirty-eight  per  cent ;  for  iron  on  iron  forty- 
four  per  cent,  and  for  cast-iron  upon  brass  about 
twenty-two  per  cent,  in  a  dry  state  and  without 
lubrication.  The  proportion  expressed  between 
the  pressure  of  two  surfaces  and  their  friction  is 
called  their  co-efficient,  and  is  found  by  dividing 
the  power  by  the  weight  moved.  The  friction  of 
quiescence,  or  the  resistance  to  the  commence- 
ment of  motion,  is  greater  than  the  resistance  to 
its  continuance,  and  more  so  if  the  surfaces  have 
for  a  considerable  time  rested  in  contact  with  each 
other.  The  friction  of  motion  is  entirely  inde- 
pendent of  the  velocity  of  the  motion.  The  re- 
sistance of  friction  to  a  shaft  turning  in  its  bear- 
ings, or  of  an  axle  in  its  box,  has  evidently  a 
greater  leverage  the  thicker  the  journal  or  the 
axle  is,  and  axles  of  wheels  are  accordingly  made 
as  small  as  is  consistent  with  their  required 
strength.  The  resistance  that  takes  place  be- 
twe'en  the  circumference  of  the  wheel  on  the  road 
is  called  "  rolling  friction."  In  front  of  the 
wheel  there  is  always  an  eminence  or  obstacle 
which  it  is  at  every  instant  surmounting  and 


FRICTION.  3 

crushing  ;  so  also  on  iron  rails,  but  to  a  much 
lesser  extent  than  on  other  roads.  On  the  princi- 
ple of  the  lever,  it  shows  that  a  larger  wheel  has 
the  advantage  over  a  smaller  one,  and  it  has  been 
fully  established  that  on  a  horizontal  road  the 
traction  varies  directly  as  to  the  load,  and  in- 
versely as  to  the  radius  of  the  wheel.  On  a  per- 
fectly good  and  level  macadamized  road,  the 
traction  of  a  cart  is  found  to  be  one-thirtieth  of 
the  load,  so  that  a  horse  to  draw  a  ton  must  pull 
with  a  force  equal  to  seventy-five  pounds.  On  a 
railway  the  traction  is  reduced  to  one  two-hun- 
dred-and-eightieth  of  the  load,  or  to  eight  pounds 
per  ton.  Friction  is  akin  to  and  as  important  as 
is  gravitation  in  every  motion  in  the  universe. 

While  friction  on  railways  is  diminished, 
further  dimunition  would  stop  motion  entirely,  as 
the  driving  wheels  of  the  locomotive  would  slide 
around  on  the  rails  without  advancing. 

Friction  is  most  valuable  when  machinery 
with  great  momentum  has  to  be  checked  or  sud- 
denly arrested  in  its  motion,  as  by  a  brake  against 
the  wheels  on  railways.  It  is  useful  in  communi- 
cating motion  by  means  of  belts,  ropes  or  chains  ; 
it  is  the  force  that  holds  the  knot  in  the  rope,  and 
it  is  the  power  that  stops  the  momentum  of  cars 
in  rapid  motion.  Friction  is  the  constant  oppo- 
nent of  motion,  which  creates  heat,  which  is 
known  as  "  Frictional  Heat." 


II. 

LUBRICATION 

To  overcome  friction  and  put  its  resisting 
power  to  as  low  a  point  as  possible,  we  use  lubri- 
cants that  can  absorb  the  frictional  heat  and, 
becoming  vaporized  by  it,  will  carry  the  heat 
into  space. 

Lubricating  is  a  necessity,  and  is  the  most 
important  factor  in  the  mechanical  world.  With- 
out lubrication  all  the  power  we  can  obtain  from 
Steam,  Electricity,  Gas,  Water,  Air  and  Horse 
Power,  Spring  and  Wind  Power  could  be  of  no 
use  to  us,  and  travel  on  railroads  and  steamboats, 
the  running  of  factories,  the  riding  in  automo- 
biles, in  carriages  and  wagons,  the  use  of  sewing 
machines,  the  riding  on  bicycles,  the  keeping 
record  of  time  by  our  watches  ;  in  short,  the 
using  of  anything  that  is  dependent  on  mechan- 
ical motion  would  be  utterly  impossible. 

We  have  then  to  investigate,  "  What  is  Lubri- 
cating?" 

Nature  teaches  us  the  laws  of  lubrication  by 
its  wonderful  workings  in  the  human  body  and 
in  the  bodies  of  all  animals.  All  the  joints  of 
(4) 


LUBRICATION.  5 

the  bones  in  the  body  would  be  useless  and  stiff 
were  it  not  for  their  being  constantly  lubricated 
by  the  so-called  "  Joint  Water,"  an  unctuous 
fluid  which  surrounds  all  the  joints  of  the  skele- 
ton part  of  the  body.  This  u  Joint  Water"  is 
constantly  produced  and  supplied  by  nature,  and 
is  constantly  consumed  by  the  frictional  heat 
created  by  our  exertions  and  movements,  and  is 
likewise  constantly  disposed  of  and  frees  the  body 
from  the  otherwise  accumulating  frictional  heat 
by  transferring  it,  with  the  perspiration  and  ex- 
halations from  the  body,  into  space.  When  the 
recuperating  powers  of  the  body  fail  to  operate 
properly,  from  one  cause  or  another,  the  inflam- 
matory condition  of  the  joints  gives  evidence  of 
the  absence  of  proper  lubrication,  and  the  final 
failing  and  drying-up  of  this  lubricating  "  Joint 
Water  "  under  diminished  generating  power  in 
advanced  age  cause  the  joints  to  move  with  diffi- 
culty and  pain,  and  in  the  end  make  them  lose 
their  usefulness  altogether. 

So  it  is  with  machinery. 

W7henever  the  surface  of  one  part  of  machinery 
in  motion  is  bearing  on  the  surface  of  another, 
friction  is  created  and  friction  creates  heat. 
This  heat  is  involved  and  increases  with  the 
velocity  and  continued  motion,  and  if  not  taken 
up  and  carried  away  by  lubrication,  will  finally 
increase  and  accumulate  to  such  an  extent  that 


6       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

the  machinery  will  have  to  be  stopped  to  allow 
the  metal  to  cool  off. 

Metal  is  able  to  absorb  a  large  amount  of  fric- 
tional  heat,  but  it  is  unable  to  free  itself  of  it  as 
fast  as  it  is  generated  by  continued  and  rapid 
motion,  and  the  heat  finally  accumulates  to  such 
an  extent  as  to  overheat  the  bearings,  and  if 
further  continued  will  so  increase  and  expand 
the  metal  as  to  cause  the  parts  to  weld  them- 
selves tightly  together.  This  has  frequently 
been  the  case  with  the  old  style  flour-mill 
spindles,  which,  after  becoming  overheated,  were 
found  to  be  so  tightly  welded  in  their  steps,  that 
they  had  to  be  chiseled  out.  To  avoid  this  we 
have  to  keep  the  revolving  parts  well  lubricated 
in  their  bearings,  and  we  have  to  continue  doing 
this  as  long  as  the  machinery  is  kept  in  motion, 
and  in  exact  proportion  to  the  frictional  heat 
evolved  and  the  amount  of  work  we  expect  to 
have  done. 

That  frictional  heat  is  created  by  motion  and 
that  it  vaporizes  the  lubricant,  is  shown  by  the 
following  convincing  experiments  made  many 
years  ago  by  the  celebrated  scientist,  Count 
Rum  ford  : 

He  had  a  metal  vessel  constructed,  with  hollow 
bottom,  had  a  perpendicular  shaft  fitted  to  it, 
and  had  it  rapidly  moved  by  mechanical  power. 

He  then  filled  the  vessel  with  water,  and  in  the 


LUBRICATION.  7 

course  of  four  hours  ascertained  that  the  water, 
by  the  absorption  of  the  frictional  heat  gen- 
erated, had  attained  a  temperature  of  140°  F., 
and  in  eight  hours  had  reached  the  boiling- 
point.  After  this  he  found  the  water  to  evap- 
orate and  gradually  diminish  in  bulk  as  long  as 
he  kept  the  shaft  in  rapid  motion. 

If  we  now  substitute  oil  for  the  water,  we  will 
find  the  oil  also  gradually  attain  the  temperature 
of  its  evaporating  point,  commonly  known  as 
"  flash  or  fire  test,"  and  will  find  it  also  to  vapor- 
ize and  gradually  reduce  its  bulk  until  the  shaft 
be  stopped  moving. 

This  shows  conclusively  that  frictional  heat 
accumulates,  and  that  it  is  disposed  of  by  evapor- 
ating into  space ;  this  evaporation,  though  con- 
tinuous, is  invisible.  Lubricating,  therefore, 
cannot  be  simply  an  interposition  of  some  sub- 
stance, as  a  sort  of  cushion,  between  the  metallic 
surfaces  of  machinery  in  motion.  Soft  metallic 
compounds,  such  as  plumbago  and  some  of  the 
finer  grades  and  inert  matter,  asbestos,  mica,  sul- 
phur, lime  and  soapstone,  have  been  recom- 
mended and  have  been  tried  for  that  purpose ; 
but  it  has  been  found  that  while  all  such  sub- 
stances serve  well,  in  small  quantities,  to  fill  the 
interstices  which  exist  in  all  metallic  surfaces  of 
bearings  however  highly  polished,  and  thereby 
presenting  a  smoother  bedding  for  the  revolving 


8          FRICTION,   LUBRICATION,  OILS    AND    FATS. 

shaft,  they  can  only  absorb  so  small  a  portion  of 
the  heat  created  by  the  friction  as  the  metal  itself 
of  which  the  machinery  is  constructed. 

The  capacity  of  plumbago  and  other  inert 
matter  for  absorbing  aud  carrying  away  the  fric- 
tional  heat  is  very  low,  as  they  cannot  vaporize, 
while  the  capacity  of  oil  and  fatty  matter  is  very 
great,  and  we  are,  therefore,  compelled  to  use  oil 
and  fatty  matter  for  lubricating. 

If  lubricating  would  be  simply  a  mechanical 
action,  and  if  a  cushion  of  soft  metal  or  other  inert 
matter,  or  of  oil  or  fat,  would  be  sufficient  to  pre- 
vent the  gradual  increase  and  accumulation  of 
frictional  heat,  then  a  very  limited  amount  of  oil, 
fat  or  other  inert  matter,  once  applied,  should  be 
sufficient.  We  find,  however,  that  we  are  obliged 
to  renew  the  lubricant  with  regularity  and  in 
exact  proportion  to  the  frictional  heat  created  by 
the  motion,  and  in  exact  proportion  to  the  amount 
of  work  we  expect  to  do  with  the  machinery  and 
we  have  to  do  this  as  long  as  the  latter  is  kept  in 
motion. 

We  have  then  to  ask  :  What  has  become  of  the 
large  quantities  of  oil  which  we  were  compelled 
to  constantly  apply  to  the  bearings  of  the  ma- 
chinery ? 

As  coal  and  water  are  constantly  consumed  to 
keep  the  supply  of  steam  up  to  move  the  ma- 
chinery; so  is  oil  constantly  consumed  to  draw 


LUBRICATION. 

the  frictional  heat  away  from  the  bearings.  We 
can  see  how  the  coal  and  water  are  consumed, 
but  we  are  unable  to  see  how  the  oil  is  con- 
sumed. We  can,  however,  find  silent  proof  that 
it  is  so,  and  that  lubricating  is  a  strictly  chemical 
process  and  not  a  mechanical  one. 

We  know  that  metal  cannot  absorb  oil,  and 
if  we  allow  most  liberally  for  all  possible  wasting 
and  for  transformation  of  much  of  it  into  gummy 
accumulations  around  the  bearings  and  in  cylin- 
ders, we  must  admit  that  a  very  limited  number 
of  gallons  from  every  barrel  of  oil  used  could 
thus  be  accounted  for,  and  it  remains  to  be  seen 
what  has  become  of  the  balance. 

We  well  know  at  what  temperature  water  is 
evaporated  and  converted  into  steam,  and  after 
serving  its  purpose  to  move  the  machinery  is  lost 
into  space.  Precisely  the  same  chemical  process, 
the  transformation  from  a  fluid  into  a  gaseous 
state,  takes  place  when  oil  is  used  for  lubricating. 

When  the  oil  becomes  heated  by  the  frictional 
heat  until  its  evaporating  temperature  is  reached, 
it  becomes,  like  steam,  a  gas,  and  is  lost  into 
space  with  the  frictional  heat  it  has  absorbed  in 
exactly  the  same  manner  as  oil  when  distilled 
from  a  still  is  transformed  from  its  fluid  state 
into  a  gaseous  one  to  be  rendered  to  a  liquid  state 
by  passing  through  a  condenser. 

This  transformation  takes  place  on  every  bear- 


10       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS    AND    FATS. 

ing,  although  on  so  small  a  scale  as  to  be  almost 
entirely  imperceptible  to  our  senses.  Where  the 
revolving  shaft  rests  heaviest  in  the  hollow  of  the 
bearing,  there  is  the  line  to  be  drawn  where  this 
invisible  transformation  of  the  oil  from  the 
liquid  into  the  gaseous  state  takes  place.  This 
line  is  exceedingly  small — perhaps  no  more  than 
the  thickness  of  the  finest  sheet  of  paper — but  on 
this  small  line  the  frictional  heat  starts  to  be 
generated,  and  being  taken  up  by  a  few  atoms  of 
the  oil  at  a  time,  is  carried  with  their  vapors 
into  space.  When  from  neglect  or  insufficient 
lubrication  bearings  become  overheated,  and 
under  the  rapidly  increasing  temperature  the 
few  particles  of  oil  vaporize  too  fast  and  become 
decomposed  under  the  increased  heat,  the  arising 
vapors,  with  a  penetrating  burning  smell,  prove 
to  us  the  slow  and  mysterious  process  by  which 
the  oil  disappears. 

Lubricating  is,  therefore,  a  chemical  process, 
and  requires  the  interposing  of  such  substances 
between  the  moving  parts  of  machinery  as  are 
capable  to  absorb  the  frictional  heat,  and  vapor- 
ized by  it,  carry  it  into  space.  Such  qualifications 
are  best  possessed  by  oil  and  fatty  matter,  and  we, 
therefore,  use  them  for  lubricating  our  machinery. 

A  continuous  stream  of  water  or  the  applica- 
tion of  ice  will  likewise  absorb  and  vaporize  with 
the  frictional  heat,  but  not  possessing  sufficient 


LUBRICATION.  11 

adhesive  body,  cannot  prevent  gradual  abrasion 
of  the  metal. 

It  has  lately  been  claimed  that  molasses  could 
be  used,  like  oil,  to  lubricate  machinery,  but 
while  molasses  possesses  adhesive  quality  (viscos- 
ity) its  lubricating  power  consists  in  the  water 
contained  in  its  body  which  is  not  efficient 
enough  to  prevent  abrasion  of  the  metal. 

CONCLUSION. 

For  over  forty  years  I  have  contended  in  my 
writings  and  lectures  that  lubrication  of  ma- 
chinery is  not  a  mechanical  process,  a  mere  in- 
terposition of  some  substance  as  a  cushion  between 
the  surfaces,  but  is  a  strictly  chemical  process, 
the  transformation  of  a  substance  by  heat  from  a 
liquid  into  gaseous  state.  I  have  .theretofore 
elaborately  explained  my  observations  on  the 
subject  of  the  theory  of  lubrication  and  have 
asked  for  refutation  or  endorsement  of  my  con- 
tention by  scientists  and  those  acquainted  with 
the  oil  industry,  but  I  have  met  in  publications 
and  printed  compilations  only  with  endless  chat- 
terings  about  viscosity  in  connection  with  the 
old  cushion  theories,  but  not  a  word  about  of 
"  what  is  lubrication,"  while  it  is  so  distinctly 
explained  by  the  immense  amounts  of  fats  and 
oils  constantly  consumed  and  lost  in  the  process 
and  the  constant  necessity  for  replacement  with 
new  supplies. 


III. 


OILS  AND  FATS. 

THE  next  question  arises :  What  are  oils  and 
what  is  fatty  matter?  What  are  the  character- 
istics, and  from  what  sources  of  nature  do  they 
come,  and  how  are  they  obtained? 

Oils  are  liquid  and  semi-solid  substances,  de- 
rived from  the  animal  and  the  vegetable  king- 
doms. They  are  unctuous  to  the  touch,  are 
insoluble  in  water,  and  possess  the  power  of 
supporting  combustion  with  flame.  They  are 
obtained  from  the  roots,  seeds,  fruits  and  flowers 
of  plants  and  trees,  and  from  the  fat  of  animals, 
by  extraction,  by  pressure,  by  rendering,  by  boil- 
ing with  water,  or  by  distillation.  They  are  also 
obtained  from  the  mineral  kingdom,  from  shale, 
and  out  of  receptacles  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth. 

Oils  are  divided  into  two  classes :  They  are 
either  oxyhydro-carbons,  that  is,  compounds  of 
oxygen,  hydrogen  and  carbon,  and  are  known  as 
"  fixed  oils,"  or  they  are  hydro-carbons,  composed 
of  hydrogen  and  carbon  only,  and  are  known  as 
volatile  or  essential  oils.  The  "fixed  oils"  do 
(12) 


OILS    AND    FATS.  13 

not  sensibly  evaporate  at  ordinary  temperature. 
They  stain  paper  permanently  and  render  it 
translucent.  They  do  not  distil  or  evaporate  at 
the  temperature  of  boiling  water,  and  they  have 
only  a  faint  odor,  like  that  of  the  substance  from 
which  they  have  been  extracted.  The  volatile  or 
essential  oils  evaporate  freely.  They  have  a 
caustic,  acrid  taste  and  an  aromatic  odor,  and 
when  distilled  with  water  they  pass  over 'at 
212°  F. 

All  of  the  u  fixed  oils "  have  an  attraction 
more  or  less  powerful  for  oxygen.  Exposed  to 
the  atmosphere,  some  of  them  become  hard  and 
resinous,  and  they  are  called  "  drying  oils ;" 
others  thicken  only  slightly  and  become  sour  and 
rancid,  and  they  are  known  as  non-drying  or 
"  fatty  oils."  The  fatty  oils  in  general  use  for 
lubricating  and  in  the  manufacture  of  Lubricating 
Oils  are : 

Vegetable  Oils  :  Olive  Oil,  Rapeseed  Oil  or 
Colza  Oil,  Cocoanut  Oil,  Palm  Oil  and  Almond 
Oil,  and  many  others  seldom  used  for  lubricating. 

Animal  Oils :  Lard  Oil,  Tallow  Oil,  Neatsfoot 
Oil,  Wool  Fat,  Sperm  Oil  and  the  many  varieties 
of  Fish  Oils. 

For  lubricating  purposes  these  oils,  vegetable 
as  well  as  animal,  are  largely  compounded  with 
mineral  oils  of  all  grades  and  colors  and  in  end- 
less proportions. 


14       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS    AND    FATS. 

Drying  Oils,  more  or  less,  are :  Linseed  Oil, 
Nut  Oil,  Poppy  Oil,  Hempseed  Oil,  Castor  Oil, 
Cottonseed  Oil  and  Rosin  Oil.  Some  of  them 
are  used  in  the  manufacture  of  greases  for  lubri- 
cating purposes,  but  all  of  them  are  unfit  for 
lubricating  machinery  on  account  of  their  resinous 
nature. 

The  volatile  or  essential  oils  are :  The  Oils  of 
Amber,  Bergamot,  Cloves,  Lemon,  Rose,  Orange 
Flower  and  many  others,  all  derived  from  the 
vegetable  kingdom.  They  are  usually  more  lim- 
pid and  less  unctuous  than  the  fatty  oils,  with 
which  they  mix  in  all  proportions.  They  are 
more  or  less  soluble  in  alcohol  and  ether,  and  are 
sparingly  soluble  in  water,  to  which,  however, 
they  impart  their  peculiar  flavor.  Nearly  all  the 
volatile  oils  resist  saponification,  and  do  not  com- 
bine with  the  alkaline  bases  to  form  soapy  com- 
pounds. They  are  not  used  for  lubricating  pur- 
poses. 

The  mineral  Oils  and  the  Petroleum  Oils  are 
Hydro-carbons,  and  belong  to  the  class  of  volatile 
and  essential  oils.  They  have  little  affinity  for 
oxygen  or  moisture.  They  will  not  saponify,  and 
they  do  not  ferment  or  become  rancid.  The 
Mineral  Oils  are  derived  from  bituminous  coal 
and  shale  by  distillation,  and  have  been  almost 
entirely  superseded  by  the  Petroleum  Oils  since 
the  utilization  of  the  latter. 


OILS    AND    FATS.  15 

The  Mineral  Oils  obtained  by  distillation  of 
coal  tar,  which  is  the  product  of  the  dry  destruc- 
tive distillation  of  coal  at  gas  works,  are  chiefly 
used  for  dissolving  rubber,  in  the  manufacture  of 
the  beautiful  aniline  colors,  and  in  making  print- 
ing inks,  varnishes  and  paints. 

The  Petroleum  Oils  have  been  placed  by  nature 
within  easy  reach  of  mankind,  and  have  been  of 
great  use  for  lighting,  heating  and  lubricating 
purposes.  In  their  natural  state  they  are  found 
in  all  forms  of  consistency,  from  a  solid  to  a  thin 
oily  liquid,  and  from  the  darkest  to  the  lightest 
shades  of  color.  This  peculiar  product  of  nature 
is  composed  of  an  endless  series  of  Hydro-carbon 
compounds,  from  a  light,  incondensible  gas,  to  a 
solid  body.  They  are  similar  in  characteristics 
to  the  Mineral  Oils  obtained  from  coal  tar  and 
from  shale,  but  differ  materially  in  their  chemical 
composition. 


IV. 


OILS  AND  FATS  OF  ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE 

ORIGIN,  THEIR  CHARACTERISTICS  AND 

HOW  THEY  ARE  OBTAINED. 

Lard  and  Lard  Oil. — Lard  is  the  prepared  fat 
of  the  hog.  The  fat  freed  from  membranous 
matter  is  cut  up  into  small  pieces  and  boiled  with 
water.  It  is  then  carefully  separated  from  the 
water  and  melted  over  a  slow  fire.  Lard  is  a 
soft,  white,  unctuous  fat,  with  a  faint  odor,  is  free 
from  rancidity  and  has  a  bland  taste  and  a  neu- 
tral reaction.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about  0.938, 
or  about  20°  to  21°  by  Baume's  hydrometer. 
Lard  is  entirely  soluble  in  ether,  in  benzine,  and 
in  disulphide  of  carbon.  It  melts  at  or  near  95° 
F.,  and  when  melted  it  readily  unites  with  oils, 
wax  or  resins.  Like  most  animal  fats,  it  consists 
of  stearin,  palmitin  and  olein.  Olein,  the  liquid 
principle  of  lard,  can  be  readily  separated  from 
the  stearin  it  contains  by  subjecting  it,  at  a  cold 
temperature,  to  strong  pressure,  when  the  liquid 
olein  is  pressed  out,  leaving  the  solid  stearin, 
which  is  principally  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
stearin  candles.  Exposed  long  to  the  air,  lard 
(16) 


ANIMAL   AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.        17 

and  lard  oil  will  absorb  oxygen  and  become  ran- 
cid. Lard  oil  as  obtained  from  lard  is  a  colorless 
or  pale  yellowish  oily  liquid  ;  it  becomes  opaque 
at  or  below  the  temperature  of  32°  F.  It  has  a 
slightly  fatty  odor  and  a  bland  taste.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  from  0.900  to  0.920,  or  from  22°  to  24° 
by  Baume's  hydrometer.  It  contains  varying 
proportions  of  stearin,  and  is  much  adulterated 
with  cottonseed  oil  and  refined  petroleum  neutral 
oils.  Lard  oil  is  sold  in  the  market  as  "  Extra 
Winter  Strained "  lard  oil  when  obtained  by 
pressure  at  a  cold  temperature  ;  as  "  No.  1  "  when 
pressed  at  a  warmer  temperature ;  and  as  "  No.2  " 
when  obtained  from  impurer  lard,  and  by  the 
rendering  process.  The  better  qualities  are  often 
used  to  adulterate  olive  oil. 

Tallow  and  Tallow  Oil. — Tallow  is  obtained 
from  the  fat  of  sheep  and  oxen.  It  is  prepared 
by  cutting  the  fat  into  pieces,  melting  it  at  mod- 
erate heat  and  straining  through  coarse  cloth. 
It  is  sometimes  previously  purified  by  boiling 
with  a  little  water.  Mutton  fat  is  of  a  firmer 
consistency,  and  fuses  at  a  higher  temperature 
than  fat  from  other  animals.  Tallow  is  very 
white,  sometimes  brittle ;  it  is  inodorous,  has  a 
bland  taste,  and  is  insoluble  in  water.  It  con- 
sists of  about  seventy  per  cent  of  stearin  and  pal- 
mitin  and  thirty  per  cent  of  olein.  It  gradually 
dissolves  in  two  parts  of  benzine,  from  which  it 

2 


18       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

slowly  separates  in  a  crystalline  form  on  standing. 
It  melts  between  113°  and  122°  F.  and  congeals 
between  98°  and  104°  F.  Its  specific  gravity 
lies  between  0.937  and  0.952  or  18°  to  20°  by 
Baume's  hydrometer. 

Tallow  oil,  i.  e.  the  percentage  of  liquid  olein 
in  tallow,  is  obtained  by  melting  the  tallow  and 
keeping  it  in  a  warm  room  at  a  temperature  of 
about  80°  to  90°  F.  for  some  hours;  the  stearin 
which  the  tallow  contains  crystallizes  in  a  granu- 
lar form,  and  in  this  state  it  is  placed  in  canvas 
or  hair-cloth  bags  and  subjected  to  hydraulic 
pressure.  The  olein  is  thus  separated  from  the 
stearin.  It  still  contains  stearin  in  various  pro- 
portions, and  the  oil  is  of  more  or  less  fluidity, 
and  for  that  reason  its  specific  gravity  varies  from 
0.911  to  0.915,  or  from  23°  to  24°  by  Baume's 
hydrometer. 

Tallow  oil  is  of  an  almost  white  color  when 
cold,  or,  at  the  most,  of  a  faint  yellow  tint.  It 
has  a  slight  odor  of  animal  fat.  Varying  with 
its  quality,  it  has  a  flash  point  of  from  475°  to 
500°  F. 

Neatsfoot  Oil  and  Horse  Tallow  Oil — Neatsfoot 
oil  is  obtained  from  the  feet  of  cows,  sheep  and 
horses.  The  hoofs  are  trimmed  and  boiled  in 
water,  when  the  oil  collects  on  the  surface  and  is 
skimmed  off,  and  is  further  purified  by  repeated 
boiling  with  water.  Neatsfoot  oil  appears  either 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.       19 

as  a  turbid  or  a  limpid  liquid  of  a  yellow-brownish 
color,  has  a  pleasant  odor  and  a  sweet  taste,  and 
has  little  tendency  to  become  rancid  ;  it  becomes 
solid  in  cold  weather  from  deposition  of  stearin, 
has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  0.912  or  23° 
Baume  at  60°  F.,  and  solidifies  at.  about  32°  to 
33°  F. 

Bone  fat,  bone  grease  or  marrow  tallow  comes 
from  the  shank  bones  of  cows,  bullocks  and 
horses.  They  are  either  boiled  in  water,  and  the 
rising  oil  is  skimmed  off,  or  they  are  subjected  to 
steam  heat  of  from  50  to  60  pounds  pressure  in 
digesters  for  from  half  an  hour  to  an  hour.  At 
the  end  of  the  operation  the  fat  is  drawn  off. 

Horse  tallow,  or  fat  obtained  from  the  render- 
ing of  dead  horses,  is  much  like  the  tallow  ob- 
tained from  cows  and  sheep,  and  under  pressure 
furnishes  an  oil  which  is  known  in  the  market 
as  horse  tallow  oil,  and  is  often  sold  under  the 
name  of  "  Neatsfoot  Oil."  It  has  at  60°  F.  a 
specific  gravity  of  0.915  to  0.980,  or  22°  Baume. 

Elain  or  Red  Oil. — The  oil  known  as  elain  or 
red  oil  gets  its  name  from  the  dark  reddish 
color  it  derives  from  its  contact  with  the  hot  iron 
press  plates  and  the  high  temperature  to  which  it 
is  subjected  in  its  production  by  the  saponification 
process  with  lime  or  sulphuric  acid,  or  by  high 
steam  pressure  or  by  distillation,  whereby  the  fat 
is  decomposed  into  oleic  axjid,  stearip  acid  an<d 


20       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND   FATS. 

glycerin.  The  fatty  acids  are  allowed  to  solidfy, 
and  are  pressed  between  hot  iron  plates,  whereby 
the  Red  Oil  (liquid  olein  or  elain)  is  separated 
from  the  solid  stearin.  The  latter  is  used  in  the 
manufacture  of  the  well-known  "  Adamantine 
Candles,"  and  the  red  oil  in  the  manufacture  of 
soaps  and  in  the  compounding  of  lubricating  oils 
and  lubricating  for  carding  wool.  By  thesapon- 
ification  of  solid  fats  by  the  lime,  sulphuric  acid 
or  steam  process,  the  fatty  acids  are  set  free  from 
their  combination  with  glycerin,  and  are  allowed 
to  solidify,  and  are  pressed.  According  to  the 
temperature,  more  or  less  stearin  and  palmitic 
acids  go  into  the  product,  and  can  be  separated 
by  distillation.  The  oil  is  often  semi-solid,  re- 
sembling tallow  grease  ;  the  distilled  varieties  are 
light  brown  to  deep  red  ;  specific  gravity  at  60° 
F.  is  from  .899  to  .909,  or  24°  to  25°  Baume. 

SPERMACETI  AND  FISH  OILS. 

Spermaceti. — The  cavities  in  the  upper  part  of 
the  head  of  the  sperm  whale  contain  an  oily 
liquid,  which,  after  the  death  of  the  animal,  con- 
cretes into  a  white,  spongy  mass,  consisting  of 
spermaceti  mixed  with  oil.  This  mass  is  removed 
and  allowed  to  separate  by  draining  or  pressure 
in  the  cold.  Common  whale  oils  and  the  oils 
from  other  cetaceous  animals  contain  also  small 
quantities  of  spermaceti,  which  on  standing  they 
slowly  deposit, 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.   21 

Spermaceti  is  a  concrete,  fatty  substance,  a 
white,  pearly,  semi-transparent  mass  of  neutral 
reaction  and  crystaline  foliaceous  texture,  friable 
and  somewhat  unctuous  to  the  touch,  slightly 
inodorous  and  insipid  ;  it  is  insoluble  in  water, 
but  soluble  in  the  fixed  oils  ;  its  specific  gravity 
is  0.945,  or  18°  Baume,  and  it  melts  at  about 
122°  F.  and  congeals  near  113°  F.  It  is  soluble 
in  ether,  chloroform,  disulphide  of  carbon,  and  in 
boiling  alcohol,  from  which  latter,  however,  it 
separates  in  crystalline  scales  on  standing.  It 
is  seldom  found  pure  in  commerce,  but  is  adul- 
terated with  fixed  oils.  Cetinelaic  acid  is  the 
main  constituent  of  spermaceti,  and  is  different 
from  oleic  acid.  Spermaceti  also  contains  small 
quantities  of  stearic  acid,  myristic  and  lauro- 
stearic  acids.  Pure  spermaceti  does  not  produce 
fatty  spots  on  paper.  When  old  it  becomes 
darker  colored  and  rancid.  Different  from  stearin, 
spermaceti  is  not  affected  by  boiling  in  diluted 
solution  of  carbonate  of  soda. 

Sperm  Oil — Is  the  limpid  liquid  separated  from 
the  spermaceti,  the  spongy  mass  in  the  head  of 
the  dead  sperm  whale.  It  is  a  pale,  yellowish- 
colored  liquid,  with  a  smell  of  fishy  nature,  and 
will,  when  exposed  to  the  cold,  deposit  but  little 
solid  matter.  It  is  not  liable  to  become  rancid, 
has  no  corrosive  action  on  metal,  and  no  tend- 
ency to  dry  and  become  gummy.  It  retains  its 


22      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

viscosity  under  influence  of  heat  better  than  any 
other  oil.  Sperm  oil  is  a  compound  of  fatty  acids 
with  alcohol  radicals,  the  acids  belonging  to  the 
oleic  acid  series.  Sulphuric  acid  gives  rise  to  an 
increase  of  heat  of  some  120°  F.,  and  produces  a 
yellowish-brown  mass,  which  distinguishes  sperm 
oil  from  other  fish  oils.  It  differs  from  other  fish 
oils  also  by  its  chemical  constitution  and  its  low 
specific  gravity,  0.884  at  60°  F.,  28°  to  29°  by 
Baume.  It  is  the  lightest  of  all  natural  oils. 

Seal  Oil — Is  obtained  from  the  blubber  of  the 
hooded  seal,  the  barbed  seal  and  the  harp  seal  of 
the  polar  regions.  The  oil  is  extracted  from  the 
blubber  the  same  as  from  that  of  the  whale,  and 
its  properties  are  similar  to  the  whale  oil.  Its 
color  varies  from  a  light  straw  to  a  brown.  It  is 
a  strongly  odorous  oil,  of  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.924  to  0.929,  21°  Baume. 

Whale  and  Train  Oils. 

These  include  cod-liver  oil,  tanner's  cod  oil 
from  different  fish,  menhaden  oil,  porpoise  oil, 
shark  oil  and  whale  oil. 

The  whale  and  train  oils  are  obtained  from 
the  blubber  of  various  species  of  whale,  the  polar 
whale,  the  humpback  whale,  the  common  whale. 
The  blubber  varies  in  thickness  from  8  to  20 
inches  around  the  body  of  the  whale,  and  after 
being  cut  into  pieces,  is  boiled  with  water  for 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.       23 

about  an  hour,  to  liberate  the  oil  from  it.  The 
specific  gravity  of  the  oil  is  from  0.920  to  0.931, 
at  about  60°  F.,  or  20°  to  22°  Baume. 

A  large  amount  of  oil  of  similar  character  as 
the  foregoing  fish  oils  is  obtained  from  endless 
varieties  of  tbe  smaller  salt  and  fresh  water  fishes, 
which  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  soaps  and 
lubricating  oils,  and  known  in  the  market  as 
"  Fish  Oils."  They  are  all  oxy hydrocarbons 
and  belong  to  the  class  of  "  fixed  oils." 

Wool  Fat,  Degras. —  Wool  fat  is  obtained  by  the 
washings  of  the  wool  of  sheep.  It  is  the  fatty 
substance  produced  by  the  absorption  of  large 
amounts  of  alkali  with  the  feeding  of  the  sheep, 
thereby  producing  a  secretive  matter  in  the  body 
of  the  sheep,  which  is  discharged  through  the 
skin  by  transpiration  and  is  deposited  in  the  wool 
as  suint,  a  quasi-saponified  compound  of  stearic, 
oleic,  and  some  palmitic  acids.  Weak  alkaline 
solutions  are  used  to. extract  this  suint  from  the 
wool,  from  which  in  turn  it  is  obtained  by  pre- 
cipitating the  alkali  with  sulphuric  acid. 

The  wool  fat  when  first  obtained  is  a  cream- 
like  mass,  which  requires  purification  and  freeing 
from  moisture.  As  this  is  usually  accomplished 
over  an  open  fire,  it  imparts  to  the  product  a 
dark  color. 

A  considerable  amount  of  wool  fat  is  also  ob- 
tained from  the  soapsuds  used  in  the  washing 


24       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

process  of  woolen  goods,  by  precipitating  the 
alkali  with  sulphuric  acid  to  liberate  the  fat. 

Degras  is  also  obtained  in  the  process  of  cha- 
moising skins  in  the  manufacture  of  chamois 
leather.  The  fermentation  produced  during  the 
manipulation  of  the  skins  with  fat  or  fish  oils, 
causes  the  fat  or  oil  to  be  split  into  fatty  acids 
and  glycerin.  About  fifty  per  cent  of  the  fat  or 
oil  employed  in  the  process  is  recovered  in  the 
form  of  a  greasy,  fatty  mass  by  wringing  and 
pressing  it  from  the  skins.  This  constitutes  the 
best  quality  of  degras. 

A  large  amount  of  fatty  mass  is  still  retained 
in  the  skins,  which  is  obtained  by  treating  them 
in  a  warm  solution  of  potassa,  whereby  the  fatty 
matter  is  partially  saponified,  and  is  separated 
from  the  resulting  white  bath  by  treatment  with 
sulphuric  acid. 

An  inferior,  factitious  degras  is  made  from  the 
elain  obtained  in  the  manufacture  of  stearin 
for  candles,  mixed  with  train  oils  and  other  fatty 
matter,  by  agitation  with  strong  decoctions  of  tan- 
bark  and  partial  saponification  with  alkalies  and 
subsequent  separation  by  means  of  sulphuric  acid. 

Degras  contains  80  per  cent  of  fatty  acids,  10 
per  cent  of  glutinous  and  extract-like  substances, 
2  per  cent  of  lime,  0.5  per  cent  of  potassa,  besides 
water. 

Castor  Oil — Castor-oil    is  obtained    from    the 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.       25 

seeds  of  the  castor-oil  plant,  Ricinus  Communis, 
which  contain  from  50  to  60  per  cent  oil  when 
separated  from  the  capsules  in  which  they  are 
enclosed.  The  seeds  are  roasted  over  a  slow  fire 
and  boiled  with  water,  from  which  the  oil  is 
skimmed  off;  later  the  seeds  are  subjected  to 
cold  or  hot  pressure,  a  better  quality  and  of 
lighter  color  being  obtained  by  cold  pressure 
than  when  pressed  warm  or  extracted  with  sol- 
vents. Castor-oil  is  the  most  viscid  of  all  the 
fixed  oils.  By  long  exposure  to  the  air  it  be- 
comes rancid  and  thick,  and  is  ultimately  trans- 
formed into  a  yellow  mass.  It  has  a  mild,  finally 
acrid  taste,  and  a  nauseous  odor,  and  it  is  of  a 
somewhat  semi-drying  character.  Exposed  to 
cold  a  solid,  white  crystalline  fat  (margaritine) 
separates  from  the  liquid  portion,  and  when 
cooled  to  0°  F.  it  congeals  to  a  yellow,  transparent 
mass,  which  does  not  liquefy  again  until  the  tem- 
perature rises  to  about  18°  F.  It  consists  of 
ricinoleic,  stearic,  and  palmitic  acids.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  0.961,  or  15°  Baume.  It  is  soluble 
in  alcohol  and  in  four  volumes  of  rectified  spirit. 
It  mixes  with  fatty  oils,  but  will  not  mix  with 
mineral  oils,  unless  previously  combined  with 
fat  or  fatty  oils. 

Olive  Oil — Olive  oil  is  obtained  from  the 
fleshy  part  and  the  kernels  of  the  fruit  of  the 
olive  tree  of  southern  Europe,  Palestine  and  Cal- 


26     FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

ifornia.  They  furnish  from  thirty,  to  fifty  per 
cent,  of  oil.  The  olives  are  subjected  to  a  gentle 
pressure,  whereby  the  best  qualities  of  olive  oil 
are  obtained.  The  resulting  cake  is  treated  with 
hot  water,  from  which  an  inferior  oil  is  skimmed 
off. 

Most  of  the  olive  oil  of  commerce  is  obtained 
by  allowing  the  olives  to  ferment  in  heaps,  and 
then  subjecting  them  to  heavy  pressure.  The  re- 
maining cake  or  mark  is  boiled  with  water,  and 
more  oil  is  obtained  of  a  darker  yellowish  or 
brownish-green  color.  Olive  oil  is  also  obtained 
by  extraction  from  the  crushed  and  dried  pulp 
with  hydrocarbon  solvents. 

Olive  oil  is  of  a  pale,  greenish-yellow  color, 
with  scarcel}'  any  smell  or  taste,  except  a  sweetish, 
nutty  flavor.  Its  specific  gravity  is  from  0.915  to 
0.920  at  60°  F.,  or  23°  Baume.  Olive  oil  mixes 
with  disulphide  of  carbon,  benzol  and  chloroform 
in  all  proportions.  When  cooled  down  it  deposits 
stearin  and  solidifies  at  25°  F.  Its  boiling-point 
is  about  600°  F. 

Sunflower  Oil — Sunflower  oil  is  obtained  from 
the  seeds  of  the  sunflower,  especially  from  the 
Black  Sea  regions.  The  seeds  are  roasted  and 
crushed,  and  the  pulp  is  separated  from  the  wood- 
like  shells.  They  contain  from  twenty-eight  to 
thirty  per  cent  of  oil.  The  oil  obtained  by  cold 
pressure  is  of  a  clear  yellow  color,  nearly  odor- 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.       27 

less,  and  of  a  pleasant,  mild  taste.  Its  specific 
gravity  at  60°  F.  is  about  0.9260,  or  21°  Baume. 
It  thickens  in  the  cold  and  solidifies  at  60°  F.  to 
a  white,  yellowish  mass.  It  is  a  very  slightly 
drying  oil,  and  is  mostly  composed  of  oleic, 
stearic  and  palmitic  acids. 

Sesame  or  Gingelly  Oil. — Obtained  from  the 
seeds  of  Sesamum  Jndicum  of  India  and  from  the 
seeds  of  the  plant  cultivated  in  southern  Europe 
and  the  Orient. 

The  seeds  furnish  from  40  to  50  per  cent  of  oil 
of  a  bright  yellowish  color  and  agreeably  sweet 
taste.  It  is  much  used  as  a  substitute  and  adul- 
terant of  olive  oil,  and  is  very  similar  to  it  in  its 
characteristics.  Its  specific  gravity  at  60°  F.  is 
0.9235,  or  22°  Baume. 

Cottonseed  Oil. — Cottonseed  oil  is  obtained  from 
the  seeds  of  the  cotton  plant.  The  seeds  contain 
from  fifteen  to  twenty  per  cent,  of  oil,  a  thickish 
liquid  of  a  straw-yellow  color,  with  nut-like  taste 
and  smell.  It  is  of  a  semi-drying  character,  con- 
sists of  palrnitin  and  olein,  and  is  from  twenty- 
eight  to  thirty  times  less  fluid  than  water.  Like 
all  the  oils  obtained  from  seeds,  the  latter  are 
first  slightly  roasted  and  separated  from  their 
outside  shells  by  mechanical  power,  and  the  oil 
is  secured  by  pressure  or  by  extraction  with 
solvents.  %. 

The  specific  gravity  of  cottonseed  oil  is  0.9206 


28      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

at  60°  F.,  or  20°  Baume.  It  separates  palmitin 
and  stearin  at  about  55°  F.,  and  solidifies  at 
about  40°  F. 

Eapeseed  or  Colza  Oil. — Rape  or  colza  oil  is 
produced  from  rapeseed,  turnips,  and  other  species 
of  Brassica.  It  is  obtained  from  the  seeds  by  cold 
and  hot  pressure,  and  they  yield  from  thirty  to 
forty-five  per  cent  of  oil.  The  first  pressings 
are  known  under  the  name  of  colza  oil ;  the  sec- 
ond pressings  are  usually  sold  as  rapeseed  oil. 
Colza  oil  has  a  pale  yellow  color ;  rapeseed  oil 
a  greenish-brown  color.  They  are  limpid  oils, 
with  a  peculiar  and  characteristic  odor,  and  an 
unpleasant  and  harsh  taste.  Exposed  to  the  air, 
the  oil  becomes  more  viscid.  Its  specific  gravity 
at  60°  F.  ranges  from  0.913  to  0.915,  or  23° 
Baume.  It  is  a  semi-drying  and  gumming  oil. 

Hempseed  Oil. — Hempseed  oil  is  obtained  from 
the  seeds  of  the  Cannabis  Indica  plant.  The  seeds 
when  crushed  have  a  peculiar  odor,  and  yield  by 
pressure  or  extraction  from  thirty  to  thirty-five 
per  cent  of  an  oil  of  a  greenish-yellow  color. 
The  oil  remains  fluid  to  10°  F.,  and  thickens 
when  cooled  down  to  5°  F.,  to  a  brownish-yellow 
mass.  Its  specific  gravity  is  0.9276,  or  21°  Baume, 
at  60°  F.,  and  about  0.9240  at  70°  F. 

The  oil  consists  of  lineolic  acid,  oleic  acid  and 
palmitin  and  stearic  acids.  It  is  somewhat  less 
drying  than  linseed  oil. 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.   29 

Palm  Oil  and  Cocoanut  Oil. — Palm  oil  is  ob- 
tained from  the  fruit  of  the  oil  palm  and  the 
cocoanut  palm  of  tropical  Africa,  and  is  known 
as  palm  fat,  palm  butter  or  palm  oil.  The  oily 
pulp  of  the  fruit  of  the  oil  palm,  after  being 
bruised  and  boiled  in  water,  yields  an  oil  which, 
when  fresh,  has  a  pleasant  odor  of  violets,  and 
assumes  in  the  cold  the  consistency  of  butter  of 
an  orange-yellow  to  a  dirty,  reddish  color. 

From  the  dried  kernels  of  the  cocoanut  (copra) 
a  fixed  oil  is  extracted,  which  is  the  cocoanut  oil 
of  commerce.  The  kernels  are  ground,  and  the 
resulting  paste  is  boiled  with  water.  The  paste 
is  then  submitted  to  high  pressure,  whereby  a 
large  quantity  of  milky  juice  is  obtained.  This 
is  boiled,  and  when  the  oil  separates  from  the 
water  it  is  skimmed  off. 

Palm  oil  or  palm  butter  consists  chiefly  of 
stearin  and  palmitin,  both  of  which  have  a  com- 
paratively high  fusing  point  of  about  115°  to 
120°  F.,  and  are  preponderant  in  the  solid  fat, 
while  olein,  which  is  fluid  at  32°  F.,  is  the  chief 
constituent  of  the  oil. 

The  specific  gravity  is  0.968,  or  15°  Baume. 

Cocoanut  oil  is  of  a  bright  white  color.  Its 
specific  gravity  is  .952,  or  17°  Baume. 

Almond  Oil. — Almond  oil  is  obtained  from  the 
kernels  of  bitter  and  sweet  almonds,  the  seeds  of 
the  almond  plant.  The  sweet  almonds  contain 


30       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

more  fatty  oil  than  the  bitter  almonds.  The 
almonds  contain  from  forty-five  to  fifty -five  per 
cent  of  oil.  For  pressing  the  bitter  and  sweet 
almonds  are  mixed.  The  oil  obtained  is  a  thick 
liquid,  little  affected  by  cold,  possesses  a  purely 
oleaginous  taste  and  solidifies  at  5°  F.  to  a  buttery 
mass.  Almond  oil  is  more  limpid  than  olive  oil 
and  is  thicker  than  poppyseed  oil.  It  consists 
almost  of  pure  olein.  Its  specific  gravity  is  about 
0.917  or  23°  Baume. 

Poppyseed  Oil. — Poppyseed  oil  is  obtained  from 
the  seeds  of  the  poppyflower  by  cold  and  by  warm 
pressure.  It  is  imported  from  India  and  the 
plant  is  largely  cultivated  in  France  and  Southern 
Europe.  The  seeds  yield  about  forty-seven  to 
fifty-five  per  cent  of  oil  of  a  pale-yellow  to  a  gold- 
yellow  color.  It  is  a  clear,  limpid  oil,  with  an 
agreeable  taste  and  a  peculiar,  slight  odor,  some- 
what like  olive  oil.  Its  specific  gravity  at  about 
60°  F.  is  0.9250  or  21°  Baume.  It  remains 
liquid  until  cooled  down  to  0°  F.  when  it  forms 
a  thick,  whitish  mass.  Once  solidified  by  cold, 
it  remains  solid  to  about  30°  F.,  when  it  begins 
rapidly  to  become  liquid  again.  Poppyseed  oil 
is  almost  as  quick  drying  as  linseed  oil,  and  is 
composed  of  linolein,  oleic,  stearic  and  palmitic 
acids. 

Corn  Oil. — Corn  oil  is  obtained  from  the  ker- 
nels of  the  corn  (maize)  plant,  and  is  almost 
entirely  found  in  the  shells  of  the  kernels. 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.       31 

To  separate  the  shells  from  the  farinaceous  part 
of  the  kernels,  and  to  make  the  latter  better  avail- 
able for  the  mashing  process,  the  kernels  are  first 
subjected  to  the  malting  process.  They  are  then 
crushed  and  the  shells  separated  from  the  fari- 
naceous part  by  a  sifting  or  centrifugal  operation, 
whereby  the  parts  of  lighter  specific  gravity  are 
easily  separated  from  the  heavier  ones,  nearly 
eighty  per  cent  of  cornmeal,  almost  entirely 
free  from  oily  matter,  being  thereby  obtained. 
Otherwise  the  oily  matter  would  greatly  interfere 
with  the  fermentation  of  the  mash,  and  impart 
an  unpleasant  flavor  to  the  alcohol  manufactured 
therefrom. 

The  hulls  thus  separated  are  subjected  to  heavy 
pressure,  and  about  fifteen  per  cent  of  pure  corn 
oil  obtained. 

Corn  oil  is  of  a  light  to  a  gold-yellow  color,  and 
has  a  peculiar,  agreeable  odor.  It  is  a  thickish 
liquid  of  0.9215,  or  22°  Baume  at  60°  F.  It  is 
composed  of  oleic,  stearic  and  palmitic  acids,  with 
a  small  percentage  of  a  volatile  oil,  and  solidifies 
at  about  50°  to  60°  F.  to  a  quite  solid,  white 
mass.  It  is  used  as  a  wool  oil,  for  the  manu- 
facture of  soaps,  and  in  the  manufacture  of  lubri- 
cating oils. 

Peanut  Oil. — Peanut  oil  is  obtained  from  the 
kernels  of  the  peanut.  They  yield  by  pressure 
from  thirty  to  forty  per  cent  of  an  oil  of  a  light 


32       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

yellowish,  almost  white,  color,  and  of  an  agreea- 
ble, particularly  nutty,  taste  and  odor.  When 
obtained  by  extraction  the  seeds  furnish  from 
forty  to  fifty  per  cent  of  oil.  The  specific  gravity 
is  0.915,  or  23°  Baume,  at  60°  F.  The  older 
and  last  pressed  oils  have  at  60°  F.  a  specific 
gravity  of  0.9202,  or  22°  Baume.  The  oil  is  more 
limpid  than  olive  oil,  which  it  resembles  much. 
It  is  a  slightly  drying  oil.  It  contains  palmitin, 
olein,  stearin  and  archidic  acids  the  latter  being 
peculiar  to  this  oil. 

Mustardseed  Oil. — Mustardseed  oil  is  obtained 
from  the  seeds  of  the  mustard  plant.  The  seeds 
yield  by  pressure  or  extraction  about  thirty  per 
cent  of  oil  of  dark  yellow-brownish  color,  of  a 
mild  taste,  and  when  obtained  by  pressure,  with 
a  very  slight  odor  of  mustard.  Its  specific  gravity 
at  60°  F.  is  0.917,  or  23°  Baume.  It  solidifies 
about  18°  F.,  and  is  composed  of  stearic,  palmitic 
and  a  peculiar  oleic  acid  called  mustardseed  acid. 

Nigerseed  Oil — Is  obtained  from  the  seeds  of 
Guizotia.  It  has  a  pale  yellow  color,  little  odor 
and  a  sweet  taste.  Is  more  limpid  than  rapeseed 
oil  and  of  semi-drying  character.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  0.924,  or  22°  Baume. 

Linseed  Oil — Linseed  oil  is  a  drying  fixed  oil 
obtained  from  flaxseed,  which  yield  about  thirty- 
four  per  cent  of  oil.  The  seeds  are  roasted  before 
being  pressed  or  extracted,  and  furnish  a  light 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.   33 

colored  oil  of  best  quality  under  cold  pressure. 
When  pressed  warm  or  obtained  by  extraction 
with  solvents  it  is  more  highly  colored  and  more 
acid,  has  a  brownish-yellow  color,  a  disagreeable 
odor,  a  nauseous  taste,  and  a  neutral  reaction. 
Its  specific  gravity  is  0.932  to  0.936,  or  20° 
Ban  me.  It  boils  at  600°  F.,  does  not  congeal  at 
0°  F.,  and  dries  and  solidifies  on  exposure  to 
the  air  and  acquires  a  strong  odor  and  taste. 

The  drying  property  of  linseed  oil  resides  in  a 
constituent  called  "  linolein,"  to  distinguish  it 
from  the  olein  of  the  non-drying  oils.  Spread 
out  in  thin  layers  and  exposed  to  the  air,  it  be- 
comes thicker  and  resinous,  and  increases  as 
much  as  twelve  per  cent  of  its  weight,  owing  to 
the  formation  of  linoxyn  by  atmospheric  oxida- 
tion. Boiled  with  litharge,  red  lead,  lead  acetate, 
manganese  dioxide  or  borate  and  other  chemicals, 
so-called  dryers,  it  absorbs  oxygen  still  more  rap- 
idly, and  increases  to  some  fourteen  per  cent  in 
weight.  Its  acrimony  is  due  to  the  presence  of  a 
small  proportion  of  an  acrid  oleoresin.  It  is 
much  adulterated  with  other  oils  when  used  in 
the  manufacture  of  printer's  ink. 

Linseed  oil  is  principally  used  in  the  manu- 
facture of  paints,  by  printers  and  varnish  makers, 
and  in  the  manufacture  of  soft  soaps  which  are 
used  for  cleaning  in  hotels,  office  buildings,  fac- 
tories, machine-shops,  and  engine  rooms,  and  for 
cleaning  automobiles, 
3 


34       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

Below  a  few  receipts  for  the  manufacture  of 
"  German  Soft  Soap  "  are  given  : 

In  a  vessel  capable  of  containing  at  least  three 
times  the  quantity  to  be  made,  put  one  part  by 
weight  of  linseed  oil,  heat  gently  and  add,  in  two 
portions,  three  parts  in  all  by  measure,  of  liquor 
of  potassa.  Boil  and  stir  frequently  until  the 
mass  becomes  clear  which  will  require  about  five 
hours  for  10  pounds  of  oil.  If  during  this  pro- 
cess the  mass  becomes  too  thick  to  stir  easily  add 
a  little  water. 

To  make  Green  German  Soap  allow  the  soap 
to  become  cool ;  but  before  it  sets  work  in  the 
coloring  matter,  which  must  be  previously  pre- 
pared by  boiling  finely  powdered  indigo  with 
water  until  the  color  is  formed  into  a  thin  paste. 
Twenty  grains  of  indigo  boiled  with  If  ozs.  of 
water  until  the  mixture  is  reduced  to  about  one 
drachm  will  answer  for  soap  from  four  ounces  of 
oil.  The  soap  must  not  be  too  hot  nor  must  it 
be  reboiled  after  adding  the  coloring  matter,  or 
the  green  will  be  destroyed. 

The  liquor  of  potassa  is  made  as  follows :  Dis- 
solve one  pound  of  carbonate  of  potassium  in  one 
gallon  of  water,  boil  and  mix  with  13  ozs.  of 
slaked  lime  washed  with  water,  boil  10  minutes 
stirring  constantly. 

Green  soap  is  also  made  from  hemp-seed  oil. 
It  should  at  least  coutain  5  per  cent  of  free  hy- 
drate of  potassa. 


ANIMAL  AND  VEUKTABLK  OILS  AND  FATS.        35 

Transparent  Linseed  Oil  Soft  Soap. — Heat  lin- 
seed oil  150  Ibs.  and  palm  oil  10  Ibs.  together 
with  about  150  Ibs.  of  potash  lye  of  18°  Be.,  and 
effect  combination  by  crutching.  When  the 
mass  has  acquired  a  pasty  consistency  it  is  grad- 
ually fitted  completely  with  potash  lye  of  28°  Be. 
The  boiling  lye  is  prepared  by  dissolving  in 
caustic  potash  lye  of  50°  Be.,  18  per  cent,  of 
potash.  In  the  case  in  question  there  are  re- 
quired for  the  saponification  of  the  stock  65  Ibs. 
of  50°  caustic  potash  lye  in  which  12  Ibs.  of 
potash  have  been  dissolved.  The  lye  is  then 
made  up  to  28°  Be.,  and  about  one-half  of  it  is 
diluted  to  18°  Be.  in  order  to  obtain  a  suitable 
combining  lye.  When  the  soap  is  correctly  fitted, 
it  is  sufficiently  evaporated  so  that  it  boils  free 
from  froth  and  breaks  short  from  the  paddle 
without  drawing  threads.  It  is  then  allowed  to 
stand  for  about  2  hours,  best  overnight  if  a  larger 
quantity  of  stock  is  used,  so  that  its  temperature 
does  not  exceed  185°  F.,  otherwise  the  subsequent 
filling  of  potato-flour  will  form  lumps.  In  the 
meanwhile  the  filling  is  prepared,  it  being  best  to 
heat  it  somewhat,  otherwise  the  soap  would  be 
cooled  too  much  and  finally  could  scarcely  be 
crutched.  However,  only  the  solutions  used  for 
the  filling  should  l-e  heated  prior  to  adding  the 
potato-flour,  and  at  the  utmost  to  167°  F.  The 
filling  consists  of  30  Ibs.  water-glass  (silicate  of 


36       FRICTION,  LURRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

soda)  mixed  with  30  Ibs.  water,  50  Ibs.  potato 
flour  stirred  together  with  90  Ibs.  potassium 
chloride  solution  of  14°  Be.,  and  50  Ibs.  fitting 
lye  of  28°  Be.  The  mixture  of  water-glass  and 
water  is  first  crutched  in  small  portions  into  the 
soap,  some  fitting  lye  is  then  added  and  next  the 
potato  flour  stirred  together  with  the  potassium 
chloride  solution  is  slowly  poured  over  the  soap, 
the  mass  being  constantly  crutched  to  effect  uni- 
form absorption  of  the  filling.  While  introduc- 
ing the  potato  flour  filling  some  fitting  lye  is  from 
time  to  time  added  to  prevent  the  soap  from  be- 
coming too  long  and  to  facilitate  crutching. 
When  the  filling  has  been  thoroughly  crutched 
in,  a  sample  is  taken  upon  the  glass  and  tested 
as  to  the  fitting.  If  the  soap  is  too  viscous  and 
soft  some  lye  has  to  be  added  so  that  it  becomes 
sufficiently  short  and  shows  the  required  firm- 
ness. When  the  samples  prove  the  soap  to  be 
correctly  fitted,  it  is  at  once  brought  into  barrels, 
as  when  cooled  too  much  it  becomes  very  viscous 
and  can  scarcely  be  ladled.  In  case  the  fitting 
has  not  been  too  strong,  the  soap  clears  nicely  in 
a  few  days  and  notwithstanding  the  large  amount 
of  filling,  is  quite  transparent  provided  clear  fill- 
ing lyes  and  pure  potato  flour  have  been  used. 

Transparent  Soft  Soap  in  the  semi-warm  way. — 
Bring  into  the  kettle  100  parts  linseed  oil  or  60 
parts  linseed  oil  and  40  parts  cotton  oil,  together 


ANJMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.       6i 

with  10  parts  rosin,  and  heat.  When  the  rosin 
is  melted  allow  to  cool  to  175°  F.,  and  then  add, 
whilst  crutching,  100  parts  caustic  potash  lye  of 
22°  Be.  mixed  with  4  parts  soda  lye  of  38°  Be. 
When  the  mass  after  continuous  crutching  com- 
mences to  combine,  add  at  once  a  solution  of  7 
parts  calcined  potash  in  21  parts  water  to  prevent 
thickening.  When  a  complete  paste  has  been 
formed  allow  the  kettle  to  stand  covered  for  about 
one  hour  to  effect  thorough  combination.  Samples 
are  then  taken  and  they  should  be  perfectly  clear 
and  short.  Small  corrections  regarding  fitting 
can  always  be  made.  When  the  soap  shows  the 
proper  constitution  it  is  allowed  to  cool  to  175°  F. 
and  filled,  a  suitable  filling  consisting  of  5  parts 
potato-flour  stirred  together  with  30  parts  potas- 
sium chloride  solution  of  13°  Be.  For  fitting 
about  4  to  5  parts  potash  lye  of  28  B<1  are 
required. 

Soft  Linseed  Oil  Soap,  with  a  Yield  of  J^.50  per 
cent. — Heat  190  Ibs.  linseed  oil  and  10  Ibs.  crude 
palm  oil  to  190°  F.  and  crutch  in  84  Ibs.  caustic 
soda  lye  of  50°  Be.  mixed  with  126  Ibs.  water. 
Combination  will  take  place  after  crutching  for 
half  an  hour.  Then  crutch  in  14  Ibs.  of  calcined 
potash  dissolved  in  42  Ibs.  of  water.  The  soap  is 
now  entirely  clear  and  can  be  immediately  filled 
with  100  Ibs.  potato-flour  stirred  together  with 
290  Ibs.  potash  solution  of  12°  Be.  and  100  Ibs. 


38       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

potassium  chloride  solution  of  13°  Be.  The  fill- 
ing, previous  to  crutching  in,  should  be  heated 
to  145°  F.  and  the  soap  itself  should  not  be  hotter 
than  176°  F.  The  soap  is  then  fitted  with  potash 
lye  of  28°  Ed,  about  80  Ibs.  of  it  being  required 
for  this  purpose,  until  a  sample  upon  the  glass  is 
again  short  and  firm. 

A  Cutting  Compound. — Glucose  flour  mixed  to 
a  paste  with  the  assistance  of  heat,  and  thinned 
out  with  linseed  oil ;  then  mixed  with  water. 

It  can  also  be  made  with  linseed  and  fish  oils 
and  neutral  petroleum  oil. 

Rosin,  Rosin  Oil  and  Turpentine. — Rosin  is  ob- 
tained by  distillation  of  the  crude  turpentine  ob- 
tained from  several  species  of  pine  and  fir  trees, 
especially  the  pine  trees  of  the  States  of  North 
and  South  Carolina  and  Georgia. 

The  crude  turpentine-resin  is  distilled  with 
water,  and  yields  about  one-fourth  of  spirits  of 
turpentine,  the  remainder  being  the  common 
rosin  of  commerce. 

Rosin  is  a  semi-transparent  solid  and  brittle 
product  of  smooth  and  shining  fracture,  of  a 
yellowish-brown,  sometimes  almost  black,  color. 
It  has  a  somewhat  acrid  and  bitter  taste,  and  is 
insoluble  in,  and  rather  heavier  than,  water. 

Rosin  melts  at  about  275°  F.,  and  is  com- 
pletely liquid  at  306°  F.  It  is  soluble  in  the 
fixed  and  in  volatile  oils.  Rosin  distilled  by 
itself  yields  rosin  oil. 


ANIMAL  AND  VEGETABLE  OILS  AND  FATS.       39 

The  first  distillate  below  674°  is  the  lighter, 
at  a  specific  gravity  of  about  .987,  or  12°  Baume, 
at  60°  F.,  and  that  over  675°  F.  being  the  sec- 
ond and  heavier  oil  at  a  specific  gravity  of  about 
.981  to  .985,  or  12°  Baume,  60°  F.  Rosin  oil 
readily  resinifies  by  absorption  of  oxygen,  and  is 
much  used  as  an  adulterant  of  linseed  oil  and  in 
the  manufacture  of  printer's  inks.  Rosin  oil 
consists  of  sylvic  and  pinic  acids.  When  dis- 
tilled with  superheated  steam,  rosin  yields  benzol 
and  toluol. 

Oil  of  turpentine  is  also  obtained  by  distilla- 
tion of  the  cones  of  the  pine  trees.  Its  specific 
gravity  is  about  0.953  at  60°  F.,  or  25°  Baume. 

Pine  tar  is  obtained  by  charring  the  wood  of 
pine  and  other  coniferous  trees. 

Deodorized  rosin  oil  is  that  freed  from  the 
"  spirits  "  by  fractional  distillation. 

Rosin  or  pine  oil  (kidney  oil)  is  a  somewhat 
thickish  fluid  of  a  brownish-yellow  color,  aro- 
matic, turpentine-like  odor  and  taste.  Its  spe- 
cific gravity  is  about  0.985  at  60°  F.,  or  12° 
Baume.  At  that  temperature  it  is  about  ten 
times  thicker  than  water,  becomes  whitish  turbid 
at  about  16°  below  zero  F.,  and  solidifies  at 
about  20°  below  zero  F.  It  is  a  slow-drying, 
gummy  oil. 

Glycerin. — Glycerin,  also  called  the  sweet  spirit 
of  the  fatty  oils  and  fats,  is  a  trihydric  alcohol, 


40       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND   FATS. 

and  is  not  found  readily  formed  in  the  fatty  mat- 
ter. All  fats  and  fatty  oila  are  considered  glycer- 
ides,  that  is,  compounds  of  fatty  acids  with  a 
weak  base  called  glyceryle.  By  the  process 
of  hot  saponification  the  stronger  alkaline  bases 
unite  with  the  fatty  acids  to  form  soapy  com- 
pounds, thereby  separating  and  setting  the  weaker 
base,  "  glycerin,"  free,  and  from  ten  to  twelve 
per  cent  of  it  is  thus  obtained.  Glycerin  is  also 
obtained  from  fatty  matter  by  the  action  of  super- 
heated steam. 

Under  cold  treatment  of  fatty  matter  with  alk- 
line  bases,  the  latter  unite  with  the  fatty  acids 
and  form  oleates,  stearates  and  palmitates  of  soda 
or  potassa,  but  no  glycerin. 

Glycerin  is  a  water-white,  viscid  liquid.  It 
has  no  odor,  but  a  very  sweet  taste.  It  boils  at 
550°  F.,  is  not  volatile  at  ordinary  temperature, 
but  will  vaporize  at  212°  F.  When  mixed  and 
boiled  with  water  it  readily  absorbs  water  from 
the  air,  and  will  mix  with  water  in  all  propor- 
tions. It  is  miscible  with  alcohol  in  all  propor- 
tions, but  is  insoluble  in  petroleum  and  benzine. 
A  mixture  of  nitric  acid  and  sulphuric  acid 
forms  with  it  "  nitro-glycerin,"  a  most  powerful 
explosive. 


V. 


CLARIFYING,    REFINING    AND    BLEACHING 
OILS  AND    FATS. 

THE  clarifying  and  bleaching  process  must 
necessarily  vary,  as  some  oils  may  be  more  or  less 
colored  or  mixed  with  impurities  than  others. 
The  animal  oils  and  fats  require  bleaching  or 
clarifying  only  when  obtained  from  impure 
material  or  offal.  The  vegetable  oils,  however, 
are  generally  more  or  less  colored  and  permeated 
with  vegetable  and  albuminous  matter.  In 
many  cases  it  will  suffice  to  blow  hot  dry  air  of 
a  temperature  of  from  120°  to  130°  F.  through 
the  oil  to  remove  the  undesirable  color  and  im- 
purities. Others  may  be  bleached  by  exposure 
to  the  sunlight  in  bright,  shallow  vessels,  or  by 
agitating  the  oil  mixed  with  animal  charcoal,  at 
a  temperature  of  about  120°  F.,  and  then  filter- 
ing it.  In  many  cases,  however,  one  or  the 
other  of  the  following  processes  may  be  required  : 

Oils  are  clarified  by  the  admixture  of  from 
five  to  ten  per  cent  of  fuller's  earth,  stirring  well 
at  a  temperature  of  140°  to  150°  F..  The  mix- 
ture is  then  allowed  to  rest  and  settle.  The 
(41) 


42 

fuller's  earth  carries  down  with  it  all  impurities 
in  suspension,  and  the  sediment  can  be  treated 
with  benzine  to  recover  any  oil  remaining  mixed 
with  the  fuller's  earth. 

Oils  are  also  refined  by  treatment  with  sul- 
phuric acid,  which  destroys  all  extraneous  vege- 
table matter.  The  oil  is  heated  to  about  110°  to 
115°  F.,  and  from  one  to  two  per  cent  of  sul- 
phuric acid,  usually  previously  diluted  with  an 
equal  proportion  of  water,  is  added,  with  constant 
agitation  for  about  half  an  hour.  It  is  then 
allowed  to  rest  and  settle  for  about  twenty-four 
hours.  From  twelve  to  fifteen  gallons  of  water, 
heated  to  about  150°  F.,  to  every  twelve  gallons 
of  oil,  is  then  stirred  with  the  oil  and  the  oil 
allowed  to  rest  and  settle  for  a  few  days,  when  it 
is  drawn  off  and  washed  with  water  to  remove  all 
traces  of  acid. 

Oils  and  fats,  especially  cottonseed  oil,  are  also 
refined  with  caustic  soda,  which,  like  acid,  de- 
stroys all  extraneous  vegetable,  mucilaginous 
and  resinous  matter,  and  all  acidity  in  the  oil. 
A  caustic  lye  of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  degrees 
Baume  is  used  for  cottonseed  oil,  from  eight  to 
twelve  degrees  for  most  other  fatty  oils,  and  a  lye 
from  five  to  six  degrees  strength  is  generally 
found  sufficient  for  cocoanut  and  like  oils,  and 
often  a  lye  of  from  one-half  to  one  per  cent 
strength  only  will  be  sufficient  for  the  purpose. 


CLARIFYING,  REFINING  AND  BLEACHING.        43 

Oils  containing  much  of  free  fatty  acids  can 
be  effectively  treated  with  weak  solutions  of 
caustic  or  carbonate  of  soda,  or  with  milk  of  lime 
or  magnesia,  and  the  oil  filtered  from  the  lime 
and  magnesia  soap  thereby  formed. 

Strong  solution  of  chloride  of  zinc,  from  one, 
to  two  per  cent  of  the  oil,  is  also  used.  It  de- 
stroys and  precipitates  all  albuminous  and  vege- 
table matter  suspended,  without  injury  to  the 
oil,  but  is  more  expensive  than  sulphuric  acid. 

It  is  advisable  to  avoid  treating  oils  to  be 
bleached  with  too  large  proportions  of  chemicals 
at  once,  as  repeating  the  operation  with  smaller 
proportions  will  generally  secure  better  results. 

Oils  can  be  bleached  and  thereby  also  deodor- 
ized with  chlorine,  a  powerful  bleaching  agent. 

The  oil  is  heated  to  a  temperature  of  about 
140°  to  150°  F.,  and  a  solution  of  chloride  of 
lime,  "  bleaching  powder,"  in  the  proportion  of 
about  one  pound  to  a  thousand  pounds  of  oil,  is 
mixed  with  the  oil.  Hydrochloric  (muriatic) 
acid  is  then  added  in  about  twice  the  quantity  of 
the  bleaching  powder  used,  and  the  oil  is  thor- 
oughly agitated.  It  is  then  allowed  to  settle, 
and  the  oil  and  fat  are  then  drawn  off.  Chloride 
of  potassa  or  peroxide  of  manganese,  with  hydro- 
chloric acid,  can  also  be  used  in  the  same  man- 
ner as  the  chloride  of  lime. 

Oil  can  also  be  deodorized  by  shaking  1,000 


44       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

parts  of  it  with  120  parts  of  water,  holding  in 
solution  3  parts  of  permanganate  of  potassa,  keep- 
ing it  warm  for  some  hours,  and  then  filter.  For 
bleaching  lard  oil,  palm  oil,  and  similar  oils  and 
fats,  the  bichromate  of  potassa  process  is  much 
used.  The  oil  or  fat  is  heated  to  a  temperature 
of  about  130°  to  140°  F.,  and  a  concentrated 
solution  of  bichromate  of  potassa  in  the  propor- 
tion of  about  10  to  12  pounds  of  the  bichromate 
to  a  thousand  pounds  of  the  oil  or  fat  is  added 
and  thoroughly  stirred  into  the  oil.  Hydrochloric 
acid  in  the  proportion  of  from  two  to  three  per 
cent  of  the  oil  is  then  added,  and  the  whole  well 
stirred  for  from  ten  to  fifteen  minutes.  The  oil, 
which  at  once  assumes  a  reddish-green  color 
soon  changes  to  a  pale-green  one.  Boiling  water 
is  then  added,  and  the  agitation  continued  for  a 
few  minutes  more,  or  live  steam  is  blown  through 
the  oil  and  then  allowed  to  settle.  The  oil  is  then 
drawn  off  and  washed  with  water  to  remove  all 
traces  of  acid. 

Degras  is  bleached  and  deodorized  in  the  fol- 
lowing manner:  The  degras  is  melted  by  heat- 
ing with  live  steam  and  thoroughly  agitated  by 
paddling,  or  blowing  with  air.  A  solution  of 
bichromate  of  potassa  in  water — one  pound  or 
more  of  bichromate  of  potassa  for  a  hundred 
pounds  of  degras — is  added,  and  after  agitating 
for  a  few  minutes  a  solution  of  two  pounds  of  sul- 


CLARIFYING,  REFINING  AND  BLEACHJNG.        45 

phuric  acid,  previously  diluted  with  six  pounds 
of  water,  is  poured  in.  Next  three  pounds  of 
black  oxide  of  manganese  are  added  and  agitated 
for  half  or  three  quarters  of  an  hour.  The 
blower  is  then  turned  off  and  the  acid  and  water 
allowed  to  separate,  and  are  drawn  off  from 
underneath  the  fat.  The  grease  is  now  sprayed 
with  hot  water,  which  is  again  allowed  to  settle, 
and  is  drawn  off.  This  is  repeated  until  all  sour 
taste  is  removed.  When  cold,  stir  thoroughly 
and  allow  still  adhering  water  to  run  off. 

Tallow  and  other  fat  can  be  cleaned  and 
bleached  by  boiling  some  fifty  pounds  of  the  fat 
with  about  five  to  ten  pounds  of  alum  dissolved 
in  about  ten  gallons  of  water  for  about  an  hour, 
constantly  stirring  and  skimming.  Draw  off  the 
clear  fat  and  add  one  pound  of  sulphuric  acid 
diluted  with  three  pounds  of  water.  Boil  and 
add  some  eight  ounces  of  bichromate  of  potassa  ; 
continue  boiling,  and  if  necessary  add  a  little 
more  acid  ;  then  allow  to  settle,  draw  off  and 
wash  with  boiling  water ;  finally  spray  with  a 
little  cold  water  to  accelerate  the  clearing  of  the 
fat. 

To  clean  and  bleach  and  deodorize  train  oil 
boil  with  salt  water,  consisting  of  about  one-fourth 
its  weight  of  sodium  chloride  (common  salt),  and 
stir  briskly  for  about  half  an  hour  ;  then  allow  to 
settle,  draw  off  the  oil  and  mix  with  a  decoction 


40       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

of  nutgalls.  After  briskly  stirring  for  about  fif- 
teen minutes  or  so,  add  about  four  ounces  aqua 
fortis  (nitric  acid)  to  every  hundred  pounds  of 
the  oil ;  stir  for  a  little  while  longer  and  allow  to 
settle  ;  draw  off  the  clear  oil  and  wash  with  water. 

Grease  is  bleached  by  melting  and  agitating 
with  about  three  per  cent  of  sulphuric  acid  and 
two  per  cent  of  a  saturated  aqueous  solution  of 
bisulphite  of  soda.  The  mixture  is  then  run  into 
a  narrow  cylindrical  vessel  and  violently  agitated 
with  dry  steam  for  half  an  hour,  and  is  then  run 
off  and  allowed  to  cool  slowly,  and  while  still 
fluid  the  fat  is  drawn  off  without  disturbing  the 
sediment.  It  is  again  agitated  with  steam  and 
about  20  per  cent  water  and  left  standing  to 
separate  and  harden. 

Action  of  Fats  and  Oils  on  Metals. — Mineral 
lubricant  has  no  effect  whatever  on  tin  and  copper, 
attacks  brass  least  and  lead  most.  Olive  oil  at- 
tacks copper  most,  zinc  least.  Rape  oil  does  not 
act  on  brass  and  tin,  while  copper  is  attacked 
most  by  it,  and  iron  least.  Tallow  oil  acts  most 
vigorously  on  copper  and  least  on  tin,  while  lard 
oil  attacks  copper  most  and  zinc  least.  Cotton-seed 
oil  acts  most  vigorously  on  zinc  and  least  on  lead. 
Spermaceti  oil  attacks  zinc  most  and  brass  least. 
Whale  oil  has  no  effect  whatever  on  tin,  least  on 
brass,  and  most  on  lead,  while  seal  oil  attacks 
brass  least  and  copper  most.  On  the  other  hand, 


CLARIFYING,  REFINING  AND  BLEACHING.       47 

the  experiments  have  shown  that  iron  is  most 
vigorously  attacked  by  tallow  oil  and  least  by 
seal  oil,  while  rape  oil  has  no  effect  on  it  what- 
ever. Tin  is  not  attacked  by  rape  oil,  only 
slightly  by  olive  oil,  and  most  by  cotton-seed  oil. 
Lead  is  least  acted  on  by  olive  oil  and  most 
vigorously  by  whale  oil,  while  lard  oil  and  sper- 
maceti oil  have  almost  the  same  effect  as  whale 
oil.  Zinc  does  not  appear  to  be  attacked  by 
mineral  lubricants,  while  lard  oil  acts  on  it  least 
and  whale  oil  most.  Copper  is  attacked  least  by 
spermaceti  oil  and  most  by  tallow  oil. 


VI. 


MINERAL    OILS. 

THESE  oils  are  obtained  by  distillation  from 
Scotch  shale,  a  black,  somewhat  flaky  mass  of 
homogeneous  structure,  with  an  irregular,  glossy 
surface.  It  is  usually  soft  enough  to  be  cut,  and 
when  ignited  burns  with  a  flame.  The  better 
qualities  yield  from  thirty  to  thirty-three  per  cent 
of  oil ;  the  poorer  grades  are  stony  and  slate-like 
and  produce  little  oil. 

When  submitted  to  distillation  in  large  vertical 
stills,  an  uncondensable  gas  and  water  containing 
a  large  proportion  of  ammonia  first  come  over; 
then  a  crude  oil  of  a  thickish  dark  reddish 
brown,  with  a  peculiar  odor  and  of  a  specific 
gravity  of  from  0.865  to  0.890,  or  32°  to  27° 
Baume,  is  obtained.  This  is  again  subjected  to 
distillation,  and  naphtha  and  light-colored  oil, 
which  gradually  becomes  darker,  are  obtained. 
Solid  paraffine  begins  to  show  itself,  followed  by 
a  thick,  brown  oil,  and  finally  coke  is  left  in  the 
still. 

The  oil  is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid  and  with 
(48) 


MINERAL    OILS.  49 

a  solution  of  caustic  soda.  When  again  distilled 
the  oil  yields  a  light  spirit  known  as  green 
naphtha,  a  light  oil  known  as  "  second  run  oil," 
and  a  dark-colored,  heavy  oil,  known  as  "  green 
oil,"  and  coke  is  left  as  residuum  in  the  still. 

The  naphtha  is  treated  with  sulphuric  acid 
and  solution  of  caustic  soda,  and  is  separated 
into  several  grades  of  illuminating  oil. 

The  "  green  oil "  is  subjected  to  a  freezing 
temperature,  and  paraffine  wax  is  obtained  from 
it  by  pressure.  The  solid  paraffine  wax  obtained 
is  about  twelve  to  fifteen  per  cent.  The  remain- 
ing oil  is  known  as  "  paraffine  oil,"  and  was 
formerly  used  in  the  manufacture  of  lubricating 
oils. 

The  specific  gravity  of  the  light  oils  from  shale 
is  about  0.730  to  0.760 ;  that  of  the  heavier  oils 
is  about  .810  to  .820.  The  oil  from  the  paraffine 
pressings  has  a  specific  gravity  of  about  0.872  or 
about  30°  Baume. 

Shale  oil  is  treated  with  a  small  proportion  of 
sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  soda,  about  one  per 
cent,  and  redistilled,  yielding  the  following 
grades  of  illuminating  oils  : 

No.  1,  best,  with  a  specific  gravity  of  0.800 
and  100°  F.  flash  point. 

No.  2,  first  quality,  with  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.810  and  103°  F.,  flash  point. 

No.  3,  second  quality,  with  a  specific  gravity 
of  0.815  and  120°  flash  point, 
4 


50       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

No.  4,  lighthouse  oil,  with  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.820  and  160°  F.,  flash  point. 

No.  5,  marine  sperm  oil,  with  a  specific  gravity 
of  0.830  and  230°  F.,  flash  point. 

A  fuel  oil  of  about  0.840  specific  gravity  is  left. 

Steam  is  used  in  the  still  and  controls  the  dis- 
tillation ;  it  lowers  the  temperature  of  the  dis- 
tillate and  facilitates  the  passing  of  the  vapors 
from  the  still. 

The  mineral  oils  have  been  entirely  superseded 
by  the  petroleum  oils  since  the  discovery  and 
utilization  of  the  latter. 

Tar  Oils. 

Tar  oils  are  obtained  from  tar,  being  the  result 
of  the  destructive  distillation  of  wood  and  bitu- 
minous coal. 

Wood  is  distilled  in  iron  retorts  and  in  covered 
heaps  or  pits  to  obtain  thereby  the  resulting  char- 
coal. The  lighter  products  of  the  distillation  are 
wood  alcohol,  naphtha  and  pyrolignic  acid,  the 
latter  being  used  in  the  manufacture  of  acetic  acid 
and  other  acetate  products.  The  tar  obtained  by 
the  destructive  distillation  of  wood  is  re-distilled 
and  wood-tar  oil  is  obtained,  from  which  picric  acid 
is  made  by  treatment  of  the  oil  with  nitric  acid. 
The  oil  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of  leather 
oils,  medicinal  soaps  and  ointments.  Creosote, 
another  product  obtained  by  the  distillation  of 


MINERAL    OILS.  51 

wood-tar,  is  in  its  chemical  composition  very  dif- 
ferent from  the  carbolic  acid,  often  misnamed 
creosote,  obtained  by  the  distillation  of  tar  from 
the  destructive  distillation  of  bituminous  coal  at 
the  gas-works. 

By  the  distillation  of  tar  from  the  gas-works  we 
obtain  benzol  and  coal-tar  oil.  This  benzol  is  a 
product  of  far  different  chemical  composition 
than  the  benzine  obtained  from  petroleum,  al- 
though often  confounded  with  it.  Benzol,  when 
treated  wih  nitric  acid,  is  converted  into  nitro- 
benzol  (or  myrbane  oil),  which  has  a  strong  odor, 
like  oil  of  bitter  almonds.  This  oil  is  much  used 
in  perfumery  and  for  scenting  soaps  and  greases, 
for  lubricating,  and  for  deblooming  petroleum 
oils. 

When  acted  upon  with  nascent  hydrogen  this 
nitro-benzol  or  myrbane  oil  is  converted  into 
aniline  oil,  from  which  the  many  beautiful  aniline 
colors  are  made  by  the  use  of  powerful  oxidizing 
agents.  Coal-tar  oil,  too,  contains  large  amounts 
of  aniline  oil,  which  is  separated  from  it  by  agita- 
tion with  strong  mineral  acids,  which  combine 
with  the  aniline  oils. 

Coal-tar  is  also  used  in  the  manufacture  of 
coal-tar  paints  for  painting  roofs,  smokestacks 
and  iron  structures.  The  product  left  in  the  still 
is  the  well  known  asphaltum,  extensively  used  in 
roofing  and  for  paving  purposes. 


VII. 

PETROLEUM    OILS. 

WHEREVER  and  however  nature  carries  on  its 
mysterious  process  of  producing  the  various 
grades  of  petroleum  found  all  over  the  globe,  the 
lighter  and  the  heavier  grades,  the  brighter  and 
the  darker  colored  ones,  all  are  found  in  shallow 
places,  above  ground  or  near  the  surface,  or  deep 
down  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth,  those  found 
lowest  being  generally  of  lighter  consistency  than 
those  found  on  or  nearer  to  the  surface.  They 
are  all  hydrocarbon  compounds  of  like  character- 
istics, differing  only  in  their  specific  gravity,  in 
their  color,  odor  or  in  purity.  The  deposits 
found  above  ground  or  near  the  surface,  which  are 
almost  solid  or  are  liquids  of  heavy  specific  grav- 
ity, appear  to  be  the  result  of  evaporation  of  their 
lighter  constituents  or  of  a  gigantic  filtering  pro- 
cess, by  which  the  liquid  constituents  have  per- 
colated to  a  lower  stratum,  leaving  the  heaviest 
ones  retained  where  they  are  found  in  an  upper 
stratum  or  on  the  surface,  as  Ozokerite  wax. 

The  petroleum  oils  of  Pennsylvania,  in  Ye- 
(52) 


PETROLEUM  OILS.  53 

nango,  Clarion  and  Butler  counties,  in  Warren 
and  McKean  counties,  vary  in  color  from  light 
amber-yellow  to  dark  black,  and  vary  in  specific 
gravity  from  30°  to  55°  Baume ;  from  thick 
lubricating  oils  to  nearly  pure  benzine.  Frank- 
lin county  oils  are  celebrated  for  their  fine  bright, 
dark  ruby  color,  their  fine  lubricating  quality 
and  excellent  cold  test,  which  makes  them  val- 
uable as  lubricants  on  refrigerator  machinery. 

The  Ohio  crude  oils  containing  sulphur  and 
having  an  unpleasant  sulphurous  odor,  are  desul- 
phurized during  the  process  of  distillation  by  plac- 
ing a  desulphurizing  chamber  between  the  retort 
and  the  cooler.  This  chamber  is  separately  heated 
and  is  filled  with  iron  oxide,  copper  sulphate,  por- 
ous lime  coke,  or  other  desulphurizing  agents,  and 
hot  air  can  be  driven  through  the  oil.  When  a 
temperature  of  130°  F.  is  attained  in  the  desul- 
phurizing chamber,  the  still  is  fired  and  the  heat- 
ing of  the  chamber  is  increased  to  prevent  the 
passing  vapors  of  the  oil  from  condensing  in  the 
chamber  before  passing  through  the  cooler.  In- 
troducing nascent  hydrogen  into  the  still  or  the 
desulphurizing  chamber,  and  its  vapors  mingling 
with  those  of  the  distilling  oil,  improves  the  color 
and  odor  of  the  distillate  and  changes  the  product 
into  one  of  lighter  gravity  and  purer  odor. 

Aluminium  chloride  also  is  used  to  desulphurize 
Ohio  petroleum.  One  hundred  parts  of  the  oil 


54       FKICTiON,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

are  heated  and  while  agitated,  0.8  part  of  alumin- 
ium chloride  is  gradually  added,  whereby  a  little 
muriatic  acid  and  much  sulphureted  hydrogen  are 
evolved.  When  no  more  gas  is  eliminated,  the 
oil  is  allowed  to  cool  and  is  drawn  off  from  over 
the  aluminium  residuum  and  washed  with  water 
and  soda  lye,  and  is  distilled  with  the  addition  of 
a  little  lime. 

In  order  to  enhance  the  value  of  the  various 
forms  of  petroleum  and  to  make  them  adapted 
and  available  for  their  manifold  uses  in  the 
market,  they  are  either  purified,  condensed  or 
distilled.  Some  require  only  straining  or  settling 
and  exposure  to  the  atmosphere,  for  a  period  of 
time,  to  vaporize  all  traces  of  inflammable,  light 
hydrocarbon  compounds  and  to  settle  all  gritty 
matter  and  impurities,  to  make  them  serviceable 
for  lubricating  purposes.  Others  are  condensed 
and  the  lighter  vapors  driven  off  and  settling  of 
gritty  impurities  is  effected  by  application  of  steam 
heat.  The  greater  bulk,  however,  is  subjected  to 
distillation,  in  order  to  separate  the  different 
grades  of  hydrocarbon  compounds  from  each 
other  and  thus  obtain  various  useful  products. 

Distillation  of  Petroleum. 

When  crude  petroleum  is  subjected  to  distilla- 
tion and  the  uncondensable  gases  and  moisture 
have  gone  over,  a  series  of  light  hydrocarbon 


PETROLEUM  OILS.  55 

compounds  known  as  "  benzine "  are  first  ob- 
tained, about  15  per  cent.  Then  a  number  of 
grades  of  burning  oil,  known  as  "  distillates," 
come  over  and  are  collected  separately.  They 
are  treated  and  bleached  and  freed  from  adhering 
scorched  impurities  with  sulphuric  acid  and 
solutions  of  caustic  soda.  From  50  to  60  per 
cent  of  these  oils  is  obtained  and  the  remaining 
residuum  oil  forms  the  basis  for  the  petroleum 
lubricating  oils. 

The  lighter  products  of  the  distillation,  the 
crude  benzine,  are  subjected  to  redistillation  with 
steam  heat  and  are  separated  into  their  respective 
degrees  of  specific  gravity  and  characteristics  re- 
quired by  the  manifold  demands  for  their  use. 
They  are  purified,  deodorized  and  bleached  by 
treatment  with  chemicals  and  are  sold  as  naphtha, 
gasoline,  benzine,  and  under  many  fancy  names. 

The  "  distillates,"  which  are  next  obtained,  are 
likewise  purified  and  bleached  by  treatment  with 
sulphuric  acid  and  solution  of  caustic  soda  and 
by  exposure  in  bright  and  shallow  tanks  to  the 
bleaching  influence  of  sunlight.  Numerous 
grades  of  distillates  are  produced  by  being  care- 
fully separated  from  each  other  during  distilla- 
tion. 

The  proceeds  of  distillation  at  specific  gravities 
are  the  benzine  series,  from  the  highest  gravity 
(the  first  distillate  obtained)  down  to  about  56° 


56       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

to  58°,  standard  white  or  export  oil  of  110°  F. 
flash  or  70°  Abel  test,  from  56°  to  54°  and  then 
from  42°  to  39°.  Water-white  oil,  120°  flash  or 
150°  fire  test,  the  legal  test  of  Ohio  and  now  the 
generally  accepted  test  of  most  states,  from  54° 
to  46°,  or  until  the  distillate  begins  to  show  color. 
Prime  white  oil,  150°  fire  test,  from  46°  to  42°, 
and  headlight  oil,  175°  fire  test,  from  46°  to  39°. 

In  case  110°  standard  white  and  175°  head- 
light oils  are  not  desired,  there  will  be  but  two 
separations  between  56°  and  39°,  viz.,  150° 
water-white  oil  and  150°  prime  white  oil,  the 
necessary  fire  test  being  obtained  by  driving 
off  the  lighter  vapors  by  redistillation  in  a  steam 
still,  or  by  steaming  and  spraying  in  an  agitator 
or  open  tank,  but  preferably  in  a  steam  still,  in 
which  case  what  is  known  as  a  "Straight  Run  " 
(distillate  from  58°  to  46°)  water-white  oil,  the 
requirement  of  almost  any  State  law  as  to  flash 
or  fire  test,  can  be  made.  These  gravity  separa- 
tions are  not  absolute,  but  flexible  within  a  few 
degrees,  dependent  upon  the  nature  of  the  crude 
oil  used  and  the  grade  of  oil  desired. 

The  continued  distillations  from  39°  down  to 
29°  constitute  the  neutral  distillates,  and  are 
divided  by  separation  into  what  is  known  as  300° 
F.  or  mineral  seal  oil  and  34°  to  36°  neutrals,  or 
by  redistillation  into  a  small  percentage  of  prime 
white  or  headlight,  300°  or  mineral  seal,  34°  to 


PETROLEUM  OILS.  57 

36°  neutral,  and  a  residual  oil  known  as  "  Spin- 
dle Oil,"  of  30°  to  32°  Baume,  possessing  con- 
siderable viscosity. 

If  the  distillation  from  the  crude  still  is  carried 
from  29°  to  20°  and  the  product  afterwards  re- 
distilled, the  residual  of  the  second  distillation 
will  be  the  commercial  red  oils  of  high  viscosity 
and  gravity  of  from  30°  to  23°. 

The  residual  oil  in  the  crude  still  at  24°  to  19° 
is  usually,  pumped  hot  into  a  tar-still  and  the 
distillation  continued  down  to  coke,  producing 
the  parafh'ne  distillates  hereafter  to  be  described. 

The  carbonaceous  residuum  or  coke  left  in  the 
still  is  used  in  the  manufacture  of  carbons  for 
electric  lighting. 

The  neutral  oils  are  purified  and  bleached  by 
treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  and  solution  of 
caustic  soda.  They  are  deodorized  by  air-blast 
and  their  fluorescence  skillfully  removed  with 
chemicals.  They  are  largely  used  for  adulterat- 
ing the  more  costly  animal  and  vegetable  "  fatty 
oils." 

The  crude  paraffine  oils  hold  crystalline  paraf- 
fine  wax  in  suspension,  produced  by  the  disin- 
tegration of  hydrocarbon  compounds  during  the 
process  of  distillation.  It  is  extracted  from  the 
oil  by  freezing  and  pressure,  and  is  purified  by 
treatment  with  sulphuric  acid  and  caustic  soda 
while  being  kept  in  a  liquid  state  by  heat.  It  is 


58       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

bleached  with  benzine  and  then  cast  into  solid 
blocks. 

Paraffine  wax  is  largely  used  in  waterproofing 
fabrics,  for  insulating,  and  in  the  manufacture  of 
candles  and  matches,  and  numerous  other  pro- 
ducts. The  paraffine  oil  left  after  separation 
from  the  wax  is  treated  with  acid  and  solution  of 
caustic  soda  and  is  filtered  through  animal  char- 
coal. It  is  used  for  lubricating  and  is  known  as 
"  Golden  Machine  Oil."  The  paraffine  oils  of 
varied  degrees  of  specific  gravity  form  the  basis 
for  many  engine  lubricating  oils  and  are  com- 
pounded with  fatty  oils  in  endless  proportions. 

In  order  to  make  the  residuum  oil  left  in  the 
still,  after  distilling  off  the  burning  oils,  directly 
useful  for  the  purpose  of  lubricating  engine  cylin- 
ders, the  oil  is  put  into  tall  vessels,  surrounded 
by  steam,  and  the  impurities,  produced  by  the 
scorching  influence  on  the  oil  against  the  heated 
bottom  and  sides  of  the  still  during  the  process 
of  distillation,  are  allowed  to  settle.  This  kind 
of  residual  is  sold  under  the  name  of  "  Steam  Ke- 
fined  Cylinder  Oil." 

Crude  oil  of  proper  character  will  also  produce 
a  good  cylinder  oil  by  introducing  steam  during 
distillation  in  the  bottom  of  the  still,  sufficient  to 
prevent  scorching  or  carbonizing  by  running 
down  to  23°  to  27°  in  the  still.  The  lower  the 
gravity  the  higher  the  fire  test.  If  run  slowly 


PETROLEUM  OILS. 

and  carefully  and  strained  while  hot,  a  second 
steaming  and  settling  will  not  be  necessary  to 
produce  a  good  steam-refined  cylinder  oil. 

Crude  oil  not  suited  for  cylinder  oil  produces  a 
black  lubricating  oil  or  "  West  Virginia  oil,"  as 
it  is  sometimes  erroneously  called. 

Residuum  oil  is  also  filtered,  while  hot,  through 
animal  charcoal,  to  give  it  a  brighter  color  and 
deprive  it  of  all  charred  impurities  held  in  sus- 
pension. As  such  it  is  known  in  the  market  as 
"filtered  cylinder  stock."  Repeated  filtration 
produces  the  products  well  known  under  the 
names  of  "  vaseline,"  "  cosmoline,"  "  petrolatum," 
and  many  other  fancy  names.  They  are  all  com- 
pounds of  paraffine  wax  in  an  amorphous  state, 
to  which  the  original  crystalline  wax  of  the  resi- 
duum oilhas  been  converted  by  chemical  action 
during  the  repeated  filtering  through  animal  char- 
coal. 

Petroleum  Oils  for  Lubricating -. — Petroleum  oils 
for  lubricating  should  have  a  flash  point  above 
300°  F.  On  general  principles,  the  most  fluid 
oil  that  will  stay  in  place  should  be  used ;  the 
oil  that  possesses  the  greatest  adhesion  and  the 
least  cohesion  is  the  best.  These  conditions  are 
possessed  first  by  the  petroleum  oils  and  second 
by  sperm  oil,  neatsfoot  oil,  and  lard  oil.  For 
light  pressure  and  high-speed  machinery,  mineral 
oils  of  a  specific  gravity  of  30°  Baume  and  350° 


60       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

F.  flash  point,  mixed  with  sperm  oil,  olive  oil  or 
rape  oil,  are  used.  For  ordinary  machinery,  oil 
of  a  specific  gravity  of  25°  to  29°  Baume,  with  a 
flash  point  of  350°  to  400°F.,  mixed  with  lard 
oil,  neatsfoot,  tallow,  or  with  vegetable  oils  is 
used.  For  use  on  spindles  in  cotton  mills,  oils 
of  360°  are  quite  safe,  and  the  flash  point  for  cyl- 
inder oil  should  not  be  below  500°  F. 

For  gas  engines  and  gasoline  engines,  a  pure 
hydrocarbon  oil  of  high  vaporizing  point,  about 
260°  F.,  a  flash  point  of  430°  F.  and  a  fire  test 
of  550°  F.,  is  considered  best. 

A  compound  of  lard  oil  and  petroleum  burning 
oil,  used  in  lanterns  as  signal  oil,  should  not  con- 
tain less  than  40  per  cent  of  prime  lard  oil  and 
have  a  flashing  point  not  below  200°  F.,  and  a 
burning  point  or  fire  test  not  above  300°  F. 

Uses  of  Petroleum. — Petroleum  is  one  of  the 
greatest  gifts  bestowed  by  nature  on  mankind. 
Gasoline  derived  from  petroleum  oil  enables  us 
to  travel  in  automobiles,  with  airships  and  motor 
boats.  The  burning  oil  from  petroleum  supplies 
light  and  heat  to  the  humblest  cottage.  The 
lubricating  oils  derived  from  it  lubricate  the  end- 
less number  of  machines  used  in  industrial  work- 
ing, and  enables  us  to  travel  by  steam  and  electric 
power  over  land  and  water.  The  neutral  oils 
and  the  paraffin  oils  are  utilized  in  the  manu- 
facture of  the  "  Valve-Oleum  "  oils,  well  known 


PETROLEUM  OILS.  61 

as  mineral  castor  oils  and  mineral  gelatines,  and 
the  many  grades  of  vaseline  are  used  to  give 
medical  relief  to  suffering  mankind. 

The  "  Dieterichs  Kafer-Oil  Liniment"  and  the 
carbolated  "  Kafer-Ointment,"  two  reliable  house- 
hold remedies  in  use  for  many  years  and  recom- 
mended by  thousands,  are  products  of  petroleum 
compounds. 

The  paraffin  wax  derived  from  petroleum  oil 
serves  for  saturating  paper,  for  water-proofing, 
and  in  ironing  fabrics,  for  covering  to  protect 
canned  fruits,  for  insulating  electric  currents  and 
for  many  other  uses. 

The  residuum  oils  left  from  the  distillation  of 
petroleum  oils  and  the  heavier  natural  ground 
oils  are  used  as  fuel  oil  for  heating  steam  boilers 
and  stills  in  place  of  coal.. 

Coke,  the  last  of  the  products  from  petroleum 
oils,  is  utilized  for  the  manufacture  of  carbon 
candles,  for  electric  lamps  and  many  other  elec- 
trical appliances. 

Debloowing  Petroleum  Oils. — For  adulterating 
animal  or  vegetable  fatty  oils  with  petroleum, 
neutral  oils  are  debloomed,  which  means  freeing 
them  from  their  fluorescent  appearance,  by  refin- 
ing them  with  chromic  acid,  or  more  readily  as 
follows  : 

The  oil  is  heated  to  about  140°  to  160°  F.,  and 
nitro-naphthaline,  binitro-ben^ol  or  binitro-toluoj, 


62         FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND   FATS. 

known  as  myrbane  oil,  is  added  and  well  stirred 
into  the  oil  in  proportions  of  about  three  ounces 
to  from  twenty  to  twenty-five  gallons  of  oil  with  a 
slight  bloom,  and  from  fifteen  to  twenty  ounces 
for  oil  with  heavier  bloom.  No  material  in- 
fluence is  thereby  exerted  on  the  the  oil  and  no 
tendency  of  the  bloom  to  reappear  remains. 

For  test,  boil  one  part  of  the  oil  with  three 
parts  of  a  ten  per  cent  solution  of  potassium 
hydrate  in  alcohol  for  one  or  two  minutes.  If 
either  of  the  nitro-compounds  is  present,  a  blood 
or  violet-red  coloration  will  be  produced.  A  pure 
oil  is  changed  by  this  test  to  a  yellow  color  only. 

Deodorizing  Petrol  Oil. — Kerosene  oil  and  ben- 
zine can  be  freed  from  their  bad  odor  as  follows : 

The  kerosene  oil  is  mixed  with  chloride  of  zinc 
and  then  poured  into  a  vessel  which  contains 
burnt  lime,  and  after  stirring  well,  is  left  standing 
for  some  time,  to  settle,  when  the  pure  kerosene 
is  drawn  off. 

The  benzine  is  mixed  and  well  stirred  with  a 
mixture  composed  of  alkali  manganese  oxide, 
some  water  and  sulphuric  acid.  After  some 
twenty-four  hours'  standing  the  benzine  is  drawn 
off  again,  treated  with  permanganate  and  soda  in 
water. 

Benzine  and  kerosene  oil  can  also  be  deodor- 
ized and  bleached,  and  their  specific  gravities 
improved,  by  a  treatment  with  nascent  or  fixed 
hydrogen  gas.  One  per  cent  of  amyl  acetate  will 
also  deodorize  petroleum  oils. 


VIII. 

MANUFACTURE  OF  LUBRICATING  OILS. 

THE  manufacture  or  compounding  of  lubri- 
cants is  manifold.  For  cylinder  oils,  mineral  or 
petroleum  oils  of  a  specific  gravity  of  about  27° 
Baume  and  a  fire  test  of  about  550°  F.,  either 
alone  or  with  additions  of  from  one  to  ten  or 
fifteen  per  cent  of  animal  or  vegetable  oils,  are 
used.  The  fatty  oils  that  such  lubricants  are 
generally  compounded  with  are  lard  oil,  neatsfoot 
oil,  tallow  oil,  linseed  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  rapeseed 
oil,  or  degras.  For  heavy  pressure  and  low-speed 
machinery,  lard,  tallow  and  other  compounded 
greases,  either  by  themselves  or  mixed  with 
graphite  (plumbago),  mica  and  soapstone  (talc), 
are  used. 

On  account  of  their  great  propensity  for  ab- 
sorbing oxygen,  the  fatty  oils  are  now  seldom 
used  alone  for  lubricating,  but  are  more  or  less 
compounded  with  petroleum  oils.  The  viscosity 
of  lubricating  power  of  spindle  oils  and  red  oils 
depends  on  the  amount  of  amorphous  parraffine 
wax  they  hold  in  suspension,  which,  however, 
(63) 


64        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

loses  much  of  its  consistency  under  the  influence 
of  frictional  heat. 

To  give  petroleum  oils  a  viscous  consistency 
they  are  often  compounded  with  proportions  of 
oleate  of  lead  (lead  plaster)  dissolved  in  the  oil 
while  heated  to  from  140°  to  160°  F.  One  to 
two  per  cent  of  unvulcanized  caoutchouc  or  rub- 
ber are  also  often  dissolved  in  the  oil,  heated  and 
stirred  together  until  thoroughly  diffused.  Soap 
in  various  proportions  and  thoroughly  dried  is 
also  compounded  in  petroleum  lubricating  oils 
by  heating  and  stirring  until  fully  dissolved  and 
diffused  and  the  oil  has  become  perfectly  bright 
and  clear.  Four  ounces  of  soap  to  a  gallon  of  oil 
will  cause  it  to  gelatinize  at  60°  F.,  and  one  pound 
of  soap  to  the  gallon  will  convert  it  into  grease. 

For  cylinder  oil,  steam-refined  residuum  stock 
or  medium  filtered  cylinder  stock  is  heated  to 
about  130°  to  140°  F.  and  stirred  or  blown  until 
free  from  moisture  and  scum,  and  from  one  to 
five  gallons,  or  even  more,  of  tallow  oil,  lard  oil, 
neatsfoot  oil,  rapeseed  oil,  olive  oil,  or  fish  oil 
added  to  each  barrel  of  stock.  To  give  common 
filtered  stock  a  better  cold  test  for  winter  use 
paraffine  oil  or  red  oil,  of  28°  to  30°  Baume  is 
added  in  the  proportion  of  about  five  gallons, 
more  or  less,  to  a  barrel  of  stock. 

Degras  (woolfat)  is  also  used  in  the  compound- 
ing of  this  kind  of  cylinder  oils,  in  the  proportion 


MANUFACTURE    OF    LUBRICATING    OILS.          65 

of  from  one  to  three  gallons  to  a  barrel  of  filtered 
stock.  The  degras  should  be  previously  heated 
and  all  arising  scum  removed  before  mixing  with 
the  cylinder  stock. 

Castorbean  oil,  well  heated  together  with  yellow 
lard  grease,  and  combined  with  well  heated  cylin- 
der stock,  is  compounded  for  cylinder  lubricating 
oils. 

For  engine  and  machinery  oil,  paraffine, 
spindle  or  red  oils  of  a  gravity  from  28°  to  33° 
Baum£,  are  compounded  and  well  stirred  together 
with  a  few  gallons  of  filtered  stock  to  improve  the 
viscosity  of  the  lighter  petroleum  oils. 

The  compounding  of  petroleum  with  fatty  oils, 
for  engine  and  machinery  lubricating  purposes, 
should  always  be  conducted  at  a  temperature  of 
about  140°  to  160°  F.  and  with  a  thorough  mix- 
ing, else  the  oils,  being  only  a  mechanical,  and 
and  not  a  chemical,  mixture,  when  resting  will 
separate  from  each  other,  on  account  of  their  dif- 
ferences in  specific  gravity.  This  explains  the 
fact  that  such  compounded  oils,  when  imperfectly 
mixed,  when  kept  in  tanks  and  gradually  drawn 
off  by  the  faucet  placed  near  the  bottom,  appear 
at  first  to  be  of  a  satisfactory  consistency,  but 
drawing  towards  the  end  are  complained  of  as 
being  too  thin  and  deficient  in  body,  the  oil  in 
the  course  of  time  having  separated  and  the 
lighter  oil  having  gradually  risen  to  the  top, 
5 


66        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

Crude  rosin  oils  are  refined  by  distillation  and 
the  resulting  products  are  treated  and  bleached 
with  chemicals  and  skillfully  deodorized  so  that 
not  the  slightest  odor  would  betray  their  origin, 
unless  partially  decomposed  under  application  of 
heat.  As  the  rosin  oils  are  of  a  very  low  gravity, 
they  are  used  in  the  compounding  of  lubricating 
oils  to  give  the  petroleum  oils  a  body  and  to  pass 
the  lighter  oils  off  for  lubricating  oils  of  lower 
gravity  and  greater  viscosity.  Lard  oils  and 
other  fatty  oils  are  often  adulterated  with  petro- 
leum oils,  and  to  reduce  the  lighter  gravity  of  the 
latter,  have  been  compounded  with  such  deodor- 
ized rosin  oils,  to  equalize  the  specific  gravity  of 
such  compounded  oils  to  that  of  genuine  lard  oil. 

Lubricating  oils  have  also  been  made  by  avari- 
cious and  ignorant  compounders  by  mixing  heavy 
rosin  oils  with  lighter  petroleum  oils  'or  even 
simply  dissolving  common  rosin  in  them,  in  the 
proportion  of  from  two  to  four  pounds  to  a  gallon. 
The  viscosity  or  body  of  such  compounded  oils 
appears  deceptively  superior  to  some  of  the  best 
lubricating  oils,  but  like  all  rosin  oils  and  rosin 
and  rosin-oil  mixtures,  which  form  resinous  de- 
posits under  the  influence  of  frictional  heat  or  on 
exposure  to  the  air,  they  are  entirely  unfit  for 
lubricating  purposes,  as  they  gum  up  the  ma- 
chinery and  retard  the  motion  by  their  stick- 
ing propensities. 


MANUFACTURE    OF    LUBRICATING    OILS.          67 

Receipts  of  Lubricants  used  in  Germany.  Cohe- 
sion oils. — A  more  or  less  viscous  fat  serves  invari- 
ably as  the  basis  of  these  oils.  Rape  oil  is  most 
frequently  used,  more  seldom  train  oil,  and,  to 
decrease  the  degree  of  fluidity,  tallow,  palm  oil, 
neatsfoot  oil,  or  another  solid  fat  is  generally 
added.  Besides  these  fats  all  these  oils  contain 
rosin  oil  in  varying  quantities,  from  8  to  20  per 
cent  of  the  amount  of  fat  used.  The  peculiarly 
characteristic  viscosity  of  these  oils  is  imparted 
to  them  by  the  addition  of  up  to  15  per  cent  of 
the  fat  used  of  American  rosin.  The  larger  the 
quantity  of  the  latter,  the  greater  the  cohesion  of 
the  lubricant  will  be.  It  is,  however,  not  advis- 
able to  use  more  than  15  per  cent,  of  rosin,  espe- 
cially if  the  lubricant  is  to  be  used  also  at  a  lower 
temperature.  Some  cohesion  oils  contain  color- 
ing or  odoriferous  substances,  or  both.  As  lubri- 
cants these  substances  are  entirely  indifferent, 
and  are  only  added  to  cover  the  other  constituents 
and  render  their  detection  more  difficult. 

The  preparation  of  cohesion  oils  is  quite 
simple.  The  rape  oil  is  slightly  heated  in  a 
kettle  and  the  determined  quantity  of  solid  fats 
(tallow,  palm  oil,  etc.)  is  added.  In  another 
kettle  which  must  be  especially  protected  to  pre- 
vent ignition  of  the  contents,  the  rosin  oil  is  heated 
almost  up  to  the  boiling  point  and  the  rosin, 
previously  broken  into  small  pieces,  is  gradually 


68        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

added,  a  fresh  portion  of  it  being  thrown  in  only 
after  the  one  previously  introduced  is  completely 
dissolved.  To  prevent  the  rosin  from  burning 
to  the  bottom  of  the  kettle,  solution  should  be 
assisted  by  stirring.  When  all  the  rosin  has  been 
dissolved  in  the  rosin  oil,  the  solution  is  ladled, 
whilst  stirring  constantly,  into  the  kettle  contain- 
ing the  oil  and  fat  mixture,  stirring  being  con- 
tinued until  the  mass  begins  to  get  viscous. 

Cohesion  oil  for  rapidly  running,  heavily  loaded 
axles. — Crude  rape  oil  190  parts,  purified  tallow 
10  parts,  rosin  oil  20  parts,  American  rosin  24 
parts. 

Cohesion  oil  for  light  axles. — Crude  rape  oil  192 
parts,  purified  tallow  8  parts,  rosin  oil  16  parts, 
American  rosin  16  parts. 

Lubricants  for  Threshing  Machines  consist  of 
mixtures  of  mineral  oil  with  refined  rape  oil,  for 
instance,  400  parts  by  weight  of  mineral  oil  of 
0.906  to  0.908  specific  gravity  and  50  parts  by 
weight  of  rape  oil. 

Automobile  Oil. — I.  Refined  rape  oil  5  parts  by 
weight,  neatsfoot  oil  5,  white  vaseline  oil  3. 

II.  Refined  rape  oil  2  parts  by  weight,  white 
vaseline  oil  6. 

Mineral  Oil  Lubricants. — Melt  the  solid  constit- 
uents, then  add  the  oil  and  mix  thoroughly. 

I.  Melting  point  120°  #— Tallow  J  part,  cer- 
esin  |  part,  filtered  cylinder  oil  4  parts, 


MANUFACTURE  OP  LUBRICATING  OILS.       69 

II.  Melting  point  150°  F. — Ceresin  1  part,  tal- 
low J  part,  filtered  cylinder  oil  1J  parts,  mineral 
oil  of  0.903  to  0.907  specific  gravity,  2  parts. 

III.  Melting  point  184°    F. — Cosmos  cylinder 
oil  2  parts,  cotton  oil  1  part,  oleic  acid  1   part, 
ceresin  1  part. 

IV.  Melting  point  ®15Q  #— Petroleum  jelly  1| 
parts,  castor  oil  1  part,  aluminium  oleate  1  part, 
ceresin  1J  parts. 

V.  Melting  point  220°  F. — Petroleum  jelly    1 
part,  seal  oil  1  part,  ceresin  1J  parts. 

Sewing  machine  Oil — I.  Mix  intimately  10 
parts  by  weight  of  pure  neatsfoot  oil  with  190 
parts  by  weight  of  white  vaseline  oil. 

II.  Refined  rape  oil  25  parts  by  weight,  white 
vaseline  oil  15  parts  by  weight. 

III.  Refined  rape  oil  10  parts  by  weight,  white 
vaseline  oil  100  parts  by  weight. 

Lubricants  for  Ice  Machines. — Mix  127.5  parts 
by  weight  of  machine  oil  of  0.915  specific  gravity 
with  22.5  parts  by  weight  of  rosin  oil. 

Lubricant  for  Compressors  consists  of  a  mixture 
of  30  parts  by  weight  of  refined  rosin  oil  and  170 
parts  by  weight  of  mineral  oil  of  0.912  to  0.915 
specific  gravity. 

Lubricating  Oils  with  Rosin  Oils. — I.  Refined 
rosin  oil  100  Ibs.,  yellow  rosin  oil  600  Ibs.,  rape 
oil  100  Ibs. 

II.  Refined  rosin  oil  400  Ibs.,  pale  paraffine 
oil  300  Ibs.,  cotton  oil  300  Ibs. 


70        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

III.  Refined  rosin  oil  100  Ibs.,  pale  rosin  oil 
300  Ibs.,  cotton  oil  120  Ibs. 

IV.  Refined  rosin  oil  200  Ibs.,  olive  oil  100 
Ibs.,  rape  oil  150  Ibs.,  rosin  oil  200  Ibs. 

Thickened  Oils. — Rapeseed  oil,  cottonseed  oil 
and  other  fatty  oils  can  be  thickened  and  their 
viscosity  increased  by  heating  them  to  from  160° 
to  170°  F.  and  forcing  or  blowing  air  heated  to 
a  like  temperature  through  the  oil  for  several 
hours.  The  propensity  of  the  fatty  oils  for  ab- 
sorbing oxygen  allows  of  turning  them  by  this 
process  into  heavy,  viscous  oils,  which  are  largely 
used  to  impart  greater  viscosity  to  lighter  petro- 
leum oils  used  for  lubricating  purposes. 

Blown  rapeseed  oil  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.967  at  60°  F.,  or  15°  Baume. 

Blown  cottonseed  oil  has  a  specific  gravity  of 
0.974  at  60°  F.,  or  14°  Baume. 


IX. 


THE  fatty  oils  and  fats  are  composed  of  either 
oleic,  margaric  or  palmitic  and  stearic  acids, 
which,  when  treated  with  caustic  soda,  form  com- 
pounds soluble  in  water.  Precipitated  with  min- 
eral salts,  such  as  sulphate  of  alumina,  magnesia, 
lime  or  acetate  of  lead,  etc.,  they  form  insoluble 
compounds,  which  are  only  soluble  in  other  fatty 
oils  or  petroleum  oils.  In  this  state  the  oils  pos- 
sess uncommon  lubricating  power,  without  the 
injurious  effect  the  otherwise  free  fatty  acids 
would  exert  on  the  metal  of  which  the  machinery 
requiring  lubrication  is  made.  They  form  the 
foundation  of  the  manufacture  of  the  "  Valve- 
Oleum  "  Oils  ("  Valve-Oleum "  is  their  trade- 
mark), patented  by  the  author,  arid  they  com- 
bine the  excellent  lubricating  qualities  of  fatty 
oils  with  the  great  cleanliness  and  diffusing  qual- 
ities of  mineral  oils.  To  manufacture  the  valve- 
oleum  oils,  lard  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  neatsfoot  oil 
or  lard-grease,  or  even  fish  oils,  can  be  used  to 
make  the  "  Valve-Oleum  "  Gelatine,  the  mineral 
castor  and  the  so-called  honeydrop  engine  oils. 
(71) 


72        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

Neatsfoot  oil  is  used  to  make  the  finest  grades  of 
"  Valve-Oleum "  cylinder  oil,  and  for  heavier 
and  coarser  grade  cake-tallow  can  be  used.  Extra 
strained  white  lard  oil  or  extra  prime  lard-grease 
is  used  to  make  the  so-called  "  Valve-Oleum  " 
white  castor  oil  and  the  oil  known  as  "  Commer- 
cial Castor  Oil,"  a  cheaper  substitute  for  the 
more  costly  castor  bean  oil.  The  oleate,  marga- 
rate  or  palmitate,  or  stearate  of  alumina,  is  the 
combination  preferably  used  in  the  manufacture 
of  the  "  Valve-Oleum  "  Oils,  although  oleate  of 
lime  and  oleate  of  lead  can  be  used  in  like  man- 
ner, the  latter  especially  in  the  manufacture  of 
paints,  paint  oils  and  factitious  linseed  oils. 

Oleate  of  alumina  is  made  in  the  following 
manner : 

A  solution  of  caustic  soda  is  first  prepared  by 
dissolving  caustic  soda  (some  160  pounds  for  a 
batch  of  1,200  pounds  of  oil  or  fat)  in  about  90 
gallons  of  water,  thus  making  about  110  gallons 
of  a  caustic  soda  lye  of  from  22°  to  23°  Baume. 
If  the  lye  is  freshly  made,  it  will  be  heated  by  the 
chemical  action  which  takes  place  between  the 
dry  soda  and  the  water.  In  that  case,  if  fat  or 
tallow  is  to  be  used,  it  is  only  melted  with  heat 
so  that  the  combined  temperature  of  the  fat  with 
that  of  the  hot  lye  will  not  exceed  250°  F.  If 
the  lye  has  been  previously  prepared  and  has 
become  cold,  the  temperature  of  the  oil  or  fat 
should  be  increased  to  about  200°  F. 


VALVE-OLEUM        OILS. 


73 


TABLE  OF  PROPORTIONS  OF  CAUSTIC  SODA  TO  GREASE  OR  OILS 
FOR  OLEATE  OF  SODA  IN  THE  MANUFACTURE  OF  THE 

VALVE-OLEUM  LUBRICATING  OILS. 


Pounds  of 
fat  or  oil 

Require  of 
Caustic  Soda 

Dissolved 
in  Water 

Produces 
of  Lye 

O/1  specific 
gravity 

8  (Igl.) 

17 

ounces 

4f  pints 

5f  pints 

23°  Bd. 

40  pounds 

5; 

1  pounds 

3  gallons 

3*  gallons 

50 

6. 

._      it 

3f 

4J 

100 

u 

7* 

r 

150 

20 

u 

Hi 

13- 

[ 

200 

26. 

(1 

15 

18; 

r 

250 

33^ 

It 

18| 

22! 

300 

39 

r       " 

27- 

i 

350 

46^ 

-      " 

26J 

32 

400 

(50 

gls.) 

53 

' 

30 

36 

: 

450 

59^ 

(• 

' 

33| 

41- 

500 

66 

c 

57* 

45; 

550 

*7O, 

r 

• 

42^ 

50; 

600 

79" 

i 

45 

54^ 

• 

650 

85^ 

r 

i 

48f 

* 

; 

700 

92 

; 

c 

64 

750 

98^ 

• 

« 

5HJ 

t 

68 

800 

105 

S 

60 

4 

73; 

• 

850 

112^ 

• 

' 

63f 

* 

77i 

900 

118* 

1 

67* 

' 

82; 

•' 

950 

125 

' 

741 

* 

86] 

- 

1000 

131*       < 

75 

91* 

1200 

(150gls.) 

160 

II 

90      " 

110 

i  < 

i  < 

While  constantly  stirring,  the  lye  is  slowly  run 
into  the  oil  or  fat  and  the  stirring  continued  until 
the  mixture  has  become  a  soapy,  mushy  com- 
pound and  has  assumed  a  perfectly  neutral  and 
soapy  taste  to  the  tongue.  This  will  be  accom- 


74        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,   OILS  AND  FATS. 

plished  in  from  one  to  two  hours,  depending 
much  on  the  quality  of  the  fat  or  oil,  being  fresh 
or  old.  The  resulting  product  is  the  oleate  of 
soda,  which  is  next  dissolved  with  boiling  water. 
Previously  from  550  to  600  pounds  of  alum  (sul- 
phate of  alumina)  are  dissolved  in  about  6  barrels 
of  boiling  water,  and  when  all  is  dissolved  and  the 
solution  is  perfectly  clear,  it  is,  while  constantly 
stirring,  gradually  run  into  the  solution  of  oleate 
of  soda,  enough  of  it  until  the  oleate  of  alumina 
thus  formed  floats  as  a  pasty  compound  on  a 
clear,  watery  solution  of  sulphate  of  soda,  the  sul- 
phuric acid  of  the  sulphate  of  alumina  having 
united  with  the  soda  of  the  oleate  of  soda,  while 
the  oleic  acid  of  the  oleate  of  soda  has  united  with 
the  alumina  and  formed  "  oleate  of  alumina." 
The  whole  mass  is  now  started  boiling  and  if  any 
lathery  foam  still  appears  on  the  surface,  some 
more  alum  solution  is  added,  until  all  the  foam 
has  disappeared  and  the  liquor  remains  perfectly 
clear.  Next  one  barrel  of  25°  paraffine  oil  is 
added,  and  the  whole  briskly  boiled  and  stirred 
for  about  one  hour.  Then  the  steam  is  turned 
off  and  stirring  is  stopped  and  the  pasty  mass 
allowed  to  subside  over  the  clear  watery  liquid. 
This  is  then  drawn  off  and  replaced  with  fresh 
boiling  water,  and  the  boiling  and  stirring  are 
resumed  and  several  times  repeated,  until  all 
taste  of  alum  or  sulphate  of  soda  has  been  re- 


OILS.  75 

moved.  The  last  wash- water  is  then  drawn  off, 
and  heating  and  slow  stirring  continued  for  a 
short  time,  and  then  discontinued,  to  allow  of  some 
more  water,  freely  separating,  to  be  drawn  off 
from  underneath  the  pasty  mass.  Heating  and 
stirring  are  now  again  resumed,  keeping  the  heat 
at  a  high  and  uniform  temperature,  until  the 
pasty  mass  becomes  turned  from  its  white  to  a 
brownish  color  and  has  become  perfectly  clear 
and  transparent  and  is  pulling  heavily,  like 
molasses  candy. 

When  a  small  sample  of  the  mass,  thrown  onto 
a  glass  plate,  shows  perfectly  clear  and  transpar- 
ent and  free  from  all  moisture,  paraffine  oil, 
which  has  been  previously  heated  to  about  140° 
to  150°  F.  and  kept  at  that  temperature  until  all 
hygroscopic  moisture  and  adhering  light  hydro- 
carbon vapors  have  been  expelled,  is  then  added 
by  slowly  running  it  into  the  batch  while  con- 
stantly stirring  and  keeping  the  temperature  at 
from  150°  to  160°  F.  for  from  two  to  three  hours 
or  more. 

To  make  the  "  Valve-Oleum  Gelatine  "  not  too 
heavy  and  so  as  to  allow  it  to  be  drawn  off  into 
barrels,  but  still  warm  enough  to  prevent  it  from 
chilling,  from  3  J  to  4  barrels  of  the  paraffine  oil 
to  every  barrel  of  fat  or  oil  used  in  the  making 
of  the  alurninate,  are  required. 

To  make  a  heavy  and  stringy  mineral  castor 


76        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

for  use  on  heavy  bearings  and  machinery,  some 
40  to  45  barrels  of  paraffine  oil  to  a  1,200-pound 
(or  3  barrels)  batch  of  fat  or  fatty  oil,  are  required, 
and  more  if  a  lighter  grade  is  desired. 

"  Valve-Oleum  "  engine,  so-called  "  Honey- 
drop  "  oil,  is  made  in  precisely  the  same  manner, 
but  in  order  to  cut  the  stringy  nature  of  the 
heavy  castor  oil  to  a  honey-drop  one,  better 
adapted  for  oiling  engines  and  lighter  machinery, 
from  30  to  40  gallons  of  degras  to  a  1,200-pound 
batch  are  added  together  with  the  barrel  of  par- 
affine oil  when  boiling  the  compound,  after  the 
precipitation  with  alum  and  before  the  repeated 
washings. 

For  "  Valve-Oleum  "  cylinder  oil,  a  barrel  of 
cylinder  stock  and  from  40  to  50  gallons  of  degras 
are  used  at  the  boiling  with  the  compound,  if 
the  cylinder  stock  to  be  used  is  of  a  reasonable 
cold  test,  otherwise  a  barrel  of  25°  paraffine  oil  is 
used.  The  batch  is  then  finished  up  with  from 
40  to  45  barrels  of  filtered  cylinder  stock,  which 
has  also  to  be  previously  heated  until  all  hygro- 
scopic moisture  and  arising  scum  have  been  re- 
moved, as  otherwise  the  combination  will  not 
remain  uniform.  Imitations  of  the  "  Valve- 
Oleum  "  oils  for  the  sole  purpose  of  giving  to 
light  distillates  or  poor  paraffine  oils  some  lubri- 
cating qualities,  such  as  the  so-called  "  Eldorado  " 
oil  and  others,  will  easily  thin  out,  separate  and 


"  VALVE-OLEUM  "    OILS.  77 

lose  their  consistency,  as  they  are  only  crudely 
mixed  with  distillates  or  light  paraffine  oils  not 
previously  freed  from  their  adhering  hygroscopic 
moisture  and  light  hydrocarbon  vapors  in  suspen- 
sion. 

White  "  Valve-Oleum  "  castor  oil  is  made  pre- 
cisely like  the  "  Valve-Oleum  "  engine  oil,  but 
extra  white  winter-strained  lard  oil  or  prime 
white  lard  grease  is  used  in  the  making  of  the 
oleate  alumina  compound,  and  300°  white  mine- 
ral oil  in  place  of  the  paraffine  oil. 

"  Valve-Oleum  "  castoroleum,  also  known  as 
"  Commercial  Castor  Oil,"  a  cheap  substitute  for 
castorbean  oil,  is  made  by  using  white  tallow  or 
prime  white  lard  grease  for  making  the  alumina 
compound,  adding  some  300°  F.  white  mineral 
oil,  to  be  boiled  with  the  alumina  bath,  and, 
after  washing  and  roasting  the  alumina  compound 
down  to  a  perfectly  clear  and  transparent  pro- 
duct, it  is  mixed  with  white  summer  cottonseed 
oil,  previously  blown  at  a  low  temperature,  to  a 
consistency  of  about  15°  to  18°  Baume. 

"  Valve-Oleum  "  Linoleum  is  made  by  using 
linseed  oil,  fish  oil,  rapeseed  oil  or  corn  oil  for 
making  the  alumina  compound,  boiling  with  an 
addition  of  neutral  oil  and  mixing  with  linseed 
oil  previously  blown  at  a  moderate  heat  to  a  con- 
sistency of  about  18°  Baume.  In  place  of  alum, 
acetate  of  lead  can  be  used  to  precipitate  the 


78         FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

linoleate  of  soda,  thereby  forming  a  linoleate  of 
lead. 

The  only  notice  accorded  in  recent  years  to  the 
Valve-Oleum  Oils  is  given  in  a  German  work  on 
Petroleum  Oils  by  Engler-Hoefer.*  They  are 
briefly  mentioned  as  being  oleates  and  palmitates 
of  alumina  and  used  to  improve  the  viscosity  of 
petroleum  derivatives. 

Origin  of  Valve-  Oleum  Oils. — From  observations 
made  by  the  author  in  the  sixties,  his  attention 
was  drawn  to  the  fact  that  the  fatty  oils  were 
then  alone  in  use  for  lubricating  machinery  and 
that  their  lighter  compounds,  the  oleic  acid  and 
the  palmitic  acid,  were  the  real  factors  in  the  lu- 
bricating process,  leaving  the  heavier  stearic  acid, 
unable  to  vaporize  by  frictional  heat,  to  accumu- 
late as  gummy  deposits  on  the  bearings  and 
cylinder.  He  also  noticed  that  the  oils  produced 
by  distillation  of  the  petroleum  oils  were  exclu- 
sively operated  on  to  obtain  the  more  valuable 
crystalline  wax  they  contain,  and  the  remaining 
paraffine  oil  was  used  for  lubricating,  and  he  also 
observed  that  depriving  the  paraffine  oils  of  their 
wax,  they  were  also  being  deprived  of  their  vis- 
cosity or  adhesiveness,  the  property  that  holds 
the  otherwise  too  fluid  oil  to  the  metals  and  allows 
its  lighter  constituents  to  do  their  work  and  evap- 
orate with  the  absorbed  frictional  heat  into  space. 

*  "  Das  Erdoel,"  Leipzig,  1913. 


"  VALVE-OLEUM  "    OILS.  79 

To  remedy  this  defect  the  paraffine  oils  were 
then  compounded  with  additions  of  fatty  oils,  but 
it  was  soon  found  that  the  free  fatty  acids  of 
which  all  fatty  oils  are  composed  acted  injuriously 
on  the  metal  of  which  machinery  in  constructed. 
The  idea  was  then  conceived  to  bind  the  fatty 
acids  to  neutral  metallic  bases,  thereby  making 
them  innocuous  and  permitting  their  excellent 
clinging  power  as  viscosity  to  be  combined  with 
the  great  diffusing  power  of  the  mineral  oil,  thus 
creating  Valve-Oleum  oils. 

The  following  receipt  from  a  German  report  is 
similar  to  Valve-Oleum  Oils. 

Aluminium- lanolate  Lubricant. — Precipitate  an 
emulsion  of  wool-fat  in  soda  lye  with  concentrated 
alum  solution.  The  precipitate  forms  a  brown, 
soft,  spongy,  sticky  mass  (aluminium  lanolate) 
and  is  freed  from  salt  and  soap  by  pressing  and 
washing  with  hot  water.  It  is  then  dissolved  in 
mineral  oil.  With  14  parts  of  mineral  oil  of 
0.885  to  0.886  specific  gravity  1  part  of  alu- 
minium lanolate  yields  a  lubricant  of  the  vis- 
cosity of  olive  oil. 


X. 

LEATHER  OILS. 

LEATHER  belts,  harness,  boot  and  shoe  leather 
require  as  much  attention  in  regard  to  lubrica- 
tion as  does  machinery.  Hides,  when  deprived 
of  their  natural  lubricating  moisture,  become  dry 
and  easily  break.  When  converted  into  leather 
for  belts,  harness,  boots  and  shoes,  it  would  soon 
become  useless  for  wear  were  it  not  for  the  inter- 
position of  the  fatty  lubricants  known  as  "  leather 
stuffings,"  which  relieve  the  frictional  action  of 
fiber  against  fiber  of  which  leather  is  composed. 
The  more  volatile  these  fatty  lubricants  are,  the 
oftener  they  require  renewal,  lest  the  frictional 
heat  and  the  abrasion  of  the  fibers  against  each 
other,  heat,  burn  and  destroy  the  leather.  We 
therefore  try  to  protect  the  leather  and  make  it 
more  durable  by  the  different  finishing  processes 
to  which  it  is  subjected,  but  unless  the  frictional 
action  of  fiber  against  fiber  is  relieved  by  constant 
lubrication,  the  frictional  heat  will  destroy  the 
fiber.  For  this  purpose  leather  oils  for  lubricat- 
ing, water-proofing,  softening  and  preserving 
leather  are  generally  compounded  after  one  or 
Pther  pf  the  following  formula?  ; 
(80) 


LEATHER    OILS.  81 

Valve- Oleum  Leather  Preserving  and  Water- 
Proofing  Oils. — Two  barrels  of  "  Valve-Oleum  " 
gelatine  made  from  neatsfoot  oil,  as  described  on 
page  71  et  seq.,  are  compounded  and  well  mixed 
with  two  barrels  of  coon  oil,  neatsfoot  oil  or  fish 
oil  (tanners'  oil).  Thereto  are  added  five  pounds  of 
Para-gum,  cut  into  fine  shreds  and  dissolved  by 
heat  in  five  gallons  of  coon  oil  or  neatsfoot  oil. 
It  can  be  colored  with  a  sufficient  amount  of  black 
West  Virginia  or  Mecca  oil,  or  with  fine  lamp- 
black ground  in  fatty  oil.  The  fatty  oils  used 
should  previously  be  heated  until  all  their 
hygroscopic  moisture  is  driven  out,  and  the  aris- 
ing scum  skimmed  off,  before  mixing  with  the 
gelatine. 

An  oil  for  tanners'  use  is  made  also  with  "  Valve- 
Oleum  "  gelatine  and  fish  oil  (train  oil)  with 
additions  of  paraffine  oil  of  low  specific  gravity. 

A  cheap  harness  oil  is  made  with  one  barrel  of 
"  Valve-Oleum  ''  gelatine  and  eight  to  ten  barrels 
of  heavy  black  petroleum  oil  and  colored  with 
gilsonite  (Egyptian  asphalt),  gum  or  lampblack 
ground  in  neatsfoot  or  fish  oil. 

A  black  harness  oil  is  also  made  with  fifty 
barrels  of  dip  oil,  fifteen  barrels  of  spindle  or  red 
oil,  five  barrels  of  degras  and  two  barrels  of  lamp- 
black ground  in  neatsfoot  oil  or  fish  oil. 

A  good  belt  oil  can  be  made  by  dissolving  by 
heat  150  pounds  of  rosin  in  one  barrel  of  castor-- 


82        FRICTION,   LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

bean  oil  and  scenting  it  with  citronella  or  myr- 
bane  oil.  Paraffine  oil,  in  which  four  to  five 
pounds  of  rosin  to  the  gallon  have  been  dissolved, 
can  be  substituted  for  part  of  the  castor-bean  oil. 

For  belt  oil  Para-gum  also  is  dissolved  in  neats- 
foot  oil  and  compounded  with  "  Valve-Oleum " 
heavy  castor  oil. 

A  belt  grease  is  made  by  dissolving  in  fifteen 
parts  of  fish  oil  and  five  parts  of  tallow,  with 
heating  and  stirring,  five  parts  of  India  rubber 
(Para-gum),  cut  into  fine  shreds,  and  adding 
four  parts  of  rosin  and  four  parts  of  beeswax ; 
stir  well  until  congealed  to  proper  consistency. 

Fluid  Adhesion- Fat  for  Belts,  is  made  according 
to  a  German  process  as  follows :  Bring  into  an 
iron  kettle,  saponified  olein  about  60  per  cent, 
vaseline  oil  about  15  per  cent.,  castor  oil  about  5 
per  cent.,  rosin  about  20  per  cent.,  and,  whilst 
stirring  constantly,  heat  sufficiently  for  the  rosin 
to  melt  and  to  effect  an  intimate  mixture  of  the 
ingredients.  The  mixture  is  then  boiled  for 
about  7  to  8  minutes.  It  should  be  borne  in 
mind  that  the  mixture  has  to  be  constantly  stirred 
from  the  beginning  to  the  end  of  the  operation. 
The  use  of  saponified  olein  results  in  the  product 
being  obtained,  after  the  boiling  process,  clear 
and  free  from  any  segregation.  If,  in  place  of  sap- 
onified olein,  tallow-olein  is  used,  the  mixture 
thickens  and  does  not  remain  clear  and  fluid.  If 


LEATHER    OILS.  83 

less  olein  and  more  vaseline  oil  were  used,  segre- 
gation would  soon  take  place ;  the  olein  (oleic 
acid)  would  float  on  the  top  and  the  other  consti- 
tuents form  a  sediment.  With  the  use  of  sapon- 
ified olein  and  the  other  ingredients  mentioned 
an  adhesion-fat  is  obtained  that  always  remains 
fluid  and  does  no  thicken.  The  fat  is  applied  by 
means  of  a  brush  to  the  underside  of  the  belt, 
if  possible  while  not  running,  to  give  the  fat  time 
to  thoroughly  penetrate,  care  being  had  to  use 
only  as  much  as  the  leather  can  absorb.  The 
upper  side  of  the  belt  need  only  be  greased  when 
it  runs  in  water  and  is  exposed  to  wet,  vapors 
and  chemical  influences,  or  drippings  from  ma- 
chinery, but  it  should  in  that  case  be  first  thor- 
oughly freed  from  adhering  grease,  dirt,  etc. 

Factitious  Paint  Oil. — A  cheap  substitute  for 
linseed  oil  is  made  by  dissolving  rosin  oil  in  neu- 
tral oil  and  mixing  it  with  linseed  oil — 2}  gal- 
lons of  linseed  oil,  2J  gallons  of  neutral  oil,  with 
from  2J  to  3  pounds  of  rosin — the  whole  being 
improved  by  boiling  with  oxidizing  agents,  or 
acetate  of  lead  until  all  the  acetic  acid  of  the  lat- 
ter has  been  expelled  and  the  oil  has  become 
bright  and  clear. 

A  cheap  paint  oil  is  also  produced  by  com- 
pounding blown  linseed  oil  with  neutral  oil  and 
a  sufficient  amount  of  dryer  ma4e  froin  rosin 
.spirits, 


XL 

ADULTERATIONS  OF  FATTY  OILS. 

WHEN  the  market  price  of  lard  oil  is  high  and 
that  of  cottonseed  oil  is  low,  the  former  is  often 
adulterated  with  the  latter.  It  is  also  adulterated 
with  petroleum  oils,  especially  prepared  for  that 
purpose,  and  with  addition  of  refined  and  de- 
odorized rosin  oil,  to  equalize  the  specific  gravity 
of  the  mixture  to  that  of  pure  lard  oil.  No.  1 
lard  oil  is  adulterated  with  white  neutral  oil  and 
No.  2  lard  oil  is  adulterated  with  yellow  neutral 
oil. 

Olive  oil  is  also  much  adulterated  with  cotton- 
seed oil,  sunflower  oil  and  others,  when  their 
market  prices,  being  lower  than  that  of  olive  oil, 
warrant  such  adulteration. 

Sperm  oil  is  much  adulterated  with  cheaper 
fish  oils,  well  refined,  deodorized  and  bleached. 

Linseed  oil  is  adulterated  with  corn  oil,  cotton- 
seed oil,  rapeseed  oil,  hempseed  oil  and  rosin  oil. 

Sperm  oil  should  not  contain  less  than  four  per 
cent  of  cetin  unless  adulterated.  Shake  one  part 
by  weight  of  sulphuric  acid  of  1.84  specific  grav- 
ity, with  four  parts  of  the  oil ;  allow  to  stand  for 
(84) 


ADULTERATIONS    OF    FATTY    OILS.  85 

about  twenty  minutes,  shaking  twice ;  add  three 
ounces  of  distilled  water,  shake  well  and  allow  to 
stand  sixteen  to  twenty  hours  ;  dilute  then  with 
three  or  four  times  its  volume  of  distilled  water 
and  mix  thoroughly.  On  standing  the  cetin 
floats  on  top  and  can  readily  be  skimmed  off ;  then 
wash,  dry  and  weigh.  It  is  soluble  in  chloroform. 
Castor  oil  is  adulterated  with  blown  oils,  such 
as  linseed,  rape  or  cottonseed  and  rosin  oils.  If 
only  ten  per  cent  of  them  be  present,  they  cause 
a  turbidity  with  absolute  alcohol,  with  which 
castor  oil  is  miscible  in  every  proportion. 


XII. 

TESTING  OILS. 

ALKALI  tests  are  made  to  ascertain  first  if  an 
oil  is  a  pure  fatty  oil,  or  a  hydrocarbon  oil,  or  a 
mixture  of  both.  A  solution  of  caustic  soda  or 
potash  of  a  specific  gravity  of  1.340  is  prepared 
and  two  volumes  of  this  solution  are  shaken  up 
with  four  volumes  of  the  oil  to  be  tested.  After 
standing,  the  oil  separates  out,  leaving  an  aqueous 
layer  clear  or  slightly  clouded.  If  hydrocarbon 
oils  are  in  large  proportion  in  the  sample,  they 
will  form  a  layer  on  the  top  and  the  aqueous 
layer  will  be  emulsified.  If  the  fatty  oil  is  in 
largest  proportion,  the  smaller  proportion  of 
hydrocarbon  oil  will  be  more  difficult  to  detect. 
To  ascertain  this,  dissolve  a  piece  of  caustic  pot- 
ash the  size  of  a  pea,  in  5  c.c.  of  alcohol.  Then 
add  a  few  drops  of  the  oil  to  be  tested  and  boil 
for  two  to  three  minutes  and  add  from  3  to  4  c.c. 
of  distilled  water.  If  the  solution  remains  clear, 
only  fatty  oil  is  present.  Mineral  oil  will  cause 
the  solution  to  be  turbid  and  even  as  small  a 
quantity  as  2  per  cent,  present  will  show  itself 
this  way. 

(86) 


TESTING   OILS.  87 

The  amount  of  mineral  oil  in  fatty  oils  is  also 
ascertained  by  mixing  25  grammes  of  the  oil  with 

10  to  15  c.c.  of  the  caustic  potash  solution  and  25 
c.c.  of  water  and  5  c.c.  of  alcohol.    This  is  boiled, 
constantly  stirring,  for  about  one  hour.     By  that 
time  the  fatty  oil  is  saponified.     Put  the  whole  in 
a  separating  funnel  and  add  more  warm  water 
and  25  c.c.  petroleum  ether  ;  shake  for  a  few  min- 
utes and  allow  to  stand.     The  upper  stratum  is 
composed  of  the  petroleum  ether  and  the  mineral 

011  and  the  lower  stratum  of  the  aqueous  layer 
of  soap  formed  by  the  fatty  matter.     This  is  run 
off,  clean  water  is  added,  stirred  together,  and  the 
whole  again  allowed  to  stand  and  the  aqueous 
liquor  run  off.     This  is  repeated  until  the  latter 
runs  off  perfectly  clear.     Now  put  the  ethereal 
layer  into  a  weighed  vessel,  evaporate  the  ether 
and  weigh  the  remaining  oil ;  the  weight  multi- 
plied by  four  gives  the  percentage  of  mineral  oil 
in  the  sample. 

A  color  test  can  be  made  by  placing  some  20 
drops  of  the  oil  in  a  porcelain  cup  and  adding 
two  drops  of  strong  sulphuric  acid.  As  the  acid 
drops  through  the  oil,  streaks  of  color  are  shown, 
and  a  tint  of  characteristic  color  gradually  spreads 
through  the  oil.  Then  stir  the  whole  and  again 
note  the  coloring.  Vegetable  oils  give  various 
colors,  shades  of  yellow-brown  or  green  ;  fish  oils 
turn  to  violet  or  purple,  animal  oils  to  a  reddish- 


88       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  PATS. 

brown,  and  hydrocarbon  oils  turn  slightly  to  a 
blackish-brown.  The  test  should  first  be  made 
with  samples  of  known  pure  quality  and  com- 
pared with  the  action  of  the  sample  under  test. 

Agitating  4  c.c.  of  the  oil  to  be  tested  with  10 
c.c.  colorless  nitric  acid  will  show,  after  settling, 
when  olive  oil  has  been  adulterated  with  cotton- 
seed oil,  by  a  brownish  color,  while  pure  olive 
oil  will  not  become  darkened. 

For  a  test  of  cottonseed  oil  in  lard  oil  put  £ 
ounce  of  nitro-sulphuric  acid  and  J  ounce  of  the 
oil  to  be  tested  in  a  glass  vessel  and  stir  well. 
Pure  lard  oil  becomes  hard  in  two  to  three  hours, 
but  when  adulterated  with  cottonseed  oil  the 
sample  may  thicken  but  will  not  become  hard. 

For  a  preliminary  test  for  neutral  oil  in  lard 
oil,  shake  the  suspected  sample  violently  in  a 
bottle.  If  it  contains  neutral  oil  it  will  form 
beads  or  bubbles  that  will  pass  away  when  the 
oil  is  pure,  but  if  adulterated  with  much  neutral 
oil  it  will  have  a  tendency  to  foam. 

To  detect  small  quantities  of  fatty  oils,  of  J  to 
2  per  cent,  in  a  sample  of  mineral  oil,  some  of 
the  oil  is  heated  for  about  fifteen  minutes,  with 
bits  of  sodium  or  sodium  hydrate,  to  about  230° 
to  250°  F.  Fatty  acid  present  will  solidify  to  a 
jelly  of  more  or  less  consistency,  according  to  the 
amount  of  fatty  oil  therein. 

To  detect  soap  dissolved  in  mineral  oil,  five  to 


TESTING   OILS.  89 

ten  per  cent,  of  the  oil  is  dissolved  in  about 
fifteen  parts  of  gasoline  or  ether,  and  solution  of 
phosphoric  acid  added.  The  formation  of  floc- 
culent  precipitate  indicates  the  presence  of  soap. 

To  detect  acidity  or  alkali  in  mineral  oil,  shake 
a  sample  of  the  oil  with  an  equal  quantity  of 
warm  water,  pour  off  the  oil  when  settled,  and 
test  the  water  with  litmus  paper.  Acidity  will 
turn  blue  litmus  paper  red,  and  if  alkaline,  will 
turn  red  litmus  paper  blue,  and  yellow  turmeric 
paper  brown. 

We  will  not  enter  any  further  into  the  inex- 
haustible field  of  chemical  and  technological 
testing  of  oils,  but  would  call  attention  to  some 
simple  and  practical  methods  for  testing  oils  and 
oil  mixtures,  as  to  their  purity  and  efficiency  as 
lubricants,  that  can  be  carried  out  by  the  most 
inexperienced  investigator. 

First  are  to  be  secured  samples  of  known  purity 
of  the  different  kinds  of  animal  and  vegetable  oils 
used  in  the  manufacture  of  lubricants,  and  then 
proceed  with  the  testing  of  the  oils  to  be  investi- 
gated as  follows : 

All  fatty  oils  of  animal  or  vegetable  origin 
possess  an  odor  and  taste  peculiar  to  themselves, 
which  becomes  more  distinctly  noticeable  when 
the  temperature  of  the  oil  is  increased.  If,  there- 
fore a  few  drops  of  the  oil,  to  be  investigated  as 
to  its  characteristics  or  origin,  are  placed  in  the 


90        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

palm  of  one  hand  and  vigorously  rubbed  by  the 
other  until  a  burning  sensation  is  experienced, 
we  can  ascertain  the  individuality  of  the  oil  by 
the  smell  from  the  flavor  known  to  be  peculiar 
to  it  and  corresponding  with  that  of  one  of  the 
samples  of  known  origin  and  purity.  We  can 
thereby  tell  if  it  is  lard  oil,  cottonseed  oil,  tallow 
oil,  fish  oil,  palm  oil  or  rosin  oil,  etc.,  and  by  this 
method  we  can  in  many  cases  also  ascertain  which 
of  these  oils  may  be  intermixed  with  another. 
When  the  oils  are  fresh  and  pure  and  carefully 
purified  and  bleached,  their  peculiar  odor  is  not 
so  readily  noticed  as  when  they  are  older;  but  by 
slightly  heating  between  the  hands  we  are  en- 
abled to  recognize  their  characteristic  odor. 

Tasting  oils  will  also  enable  us  to  ascertain 
their  individuality,  when  we  make  comparison 
of  their  taste  with  that  of  the  samples  of  oils,  the 
purity  and  character  of  which  is  known  to  us. 

The  intermixing  of  fatty  oils  for  purposes  of 
adulteration,  when  the  one  oil  can  be  bought  in 
the  market  at  lower  price  than  the  other,  is  not 
very  detrimental  in  their  use  for  manufacturing 
purposes,  but  when  fatty  oils  have  been  adul- 
terated with  petroleum  oils,  the  difference  in 
value  and  the  thereby  lowered  quality  of  the  oil, 
demands  investigation.  Lard  oil,  cottonseed  oil, 
neatsfoot  oil  and  other  fatty  oils,  are  more  or  less 
adulterated  with  high-fire-test  petroleum  oils, 


TESTING   OILS.  91 

and  with  such  of  them  as  have  been  especially 
prepared  and  deodorized  for  that  purpose.  Such 
adulterations  can  he  detected  by  the  following 
simple  tests : 

When  petroleum  oil  has  been  admixed  in  large 
proportion,  the  simple  pouring  of  some  of  the  oil 
on  a  dark  ground,  or,  onto  a  smoked-glass  plate, 
in  a  place  where  the  sunlight  can  fall  on  it,  will 
give  sufficient  proof  of  the  presence  of  petroleum 
oil,  by  its  bluish,  fluorescent  lustre.  Its  pres- 
ence can  also  be  ascertained  by  the  use  of  the 
hydrometer.  As  the  specific  gravity  of  petroleum 
is  so  much  higher  than  that  of  fatty  oils,  the  hy- 
drometer cannot  fail  to  indicate  by  the  so  much 
increased  specific  gravity  of  the  mixture  above 
the  well-known  lower  gravity  of  pure  fatty  oils, 
that  petroleum  is  present  and  how  much  of  it. 
Its  presence  in  fatty  oil  compounds  can  further 
be  ascertained  by  slowly  heating  a  sample  of  the 
suspected  oil  in  a  porcelain  dish  over  a  spirit 
lamp,  with  a  thermometer  suspended  in  it,  and 
by  applying  from  time  to  time  a  lighted  match 
to  it  and  note  the  temperature  at  which  the  oil 
will  ignite.  Petroleum  used  for  compounding 
with  fatty  oils  will  vaporize  and  ignite  at  from 
110°  to  300°  F.  while  fatty  oils  require  for  igni- 
tion twice  as  much  heat. 

To  ascertain  with  what  proportion  of  petroleum 
a  fatty  oil  has  been  adulterated,  samples  are  pre- 


92        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

pared  and  mixed  in  various  definite  proportions. 
Mark  on  each  sample  the  proportion  of  petroleum 
added  to  the  oil,  the  specific  gravity  ascertained 
by  the  hydrometer,  and  the  temperature  at  which 
it  became  ignited.  By  submitting  a  sample  of 
the  oil  to  be  investigated  to  the  same  test,  we  can 
easily  ascertain  the  proportion  of  petroleum  it 
contains,  by.  comparing  the  result  of  the  test  with 
those  marked  on  the  prepared  samples. 

We  can  tell  of  the  presence  of  petroleum  in  fatty 
oils,  even  in  very  small  proportions,  by  placing  a 
small  quantity  of  the  suspected  oil  on  our  tongue 
and  subjecting  it  to  the  motion  of  mastication, 
the  same  as  if  we  were  tasting  some  other  fatty 
nutriment,  such  as  butter  or  lard.  The  alkaline 
saliva  in  the  mouth  will  act  upon  and  unite  with 
the  fatty  oil  of  the  sample  but  not  with  the  petro- 
leum oil  it  contains,  and  after  the  fatty  oil  has 
become  absorbed  by  the  system,  the  presence  of 
petroleum  will  manifest  itself  by  its  remaining 
nauseating  taste. 

To  prevent  detection  of  adulteration  of  fatty 
oils  by  the  hydrometer  test,  fatty  oils  are  often 
mixed  with  petroleum  and  refined  rosin  oil,  to 
equalize  by  the  low  specific  gravity  of  the  latter 
the  lighter  specific  gravity  of  the  petroleum. 
Their  presence,  however,  is  easily  detected  by 
taste  and  likewise  by  smell,  when  heated  by  fric- 
tion between  the  hands,  as  before  explained. 


TESTING    OILS.  93 

The  comparative  efficiency  of  oils  for  lubricat- 
ing can  be  tested  in  many  ways  without  the  use 
of  costly  testing  machines.  To  ascertain  the 
gumming  propensities  of  an  oil  we  need  only  to 
spread  some  of  it  in  a  very  thin  layer  over  a 
glass  plate,  protect  it  against  dust,  and  expose  it 
to  the  sunlight  or  other  slow,  dry  heat.  In  a 
short  time  the  gumming  propensity  of  the  oil  will 
be  indicated  by  the  tough  and  sticky  appearance 
of  what  of  the  sample  remains  on  the  glass. 

Viscosity. — Viscosity  is  the  degree  of  fluidity  of 
an  oil.  The  greater  viscosity  or  body  one  oil  pos- 
sesses over  another  can  be  ascertained  by  allowing 
a  given  amount  of  the  oils  to  be  tested  to  drop  out 
of  the  narrow  end  of  a  glass  tube,  or  count  the 
drops  falling  from  them  in  one  or  more  minutes 
and  compare  the  difference.  By  varying  the 
test  at  a  colder  or  warmer  temperature,  the  uni- 
form consistency  of  the  oils  can  likewise  be  ascer- 
tained and  compared. 

By  pouring  a  drop  of  oil  to  be  examined  on  a 
well-cleaned  glass  plate  placed  on  an  incline, 
alongside  of  another  placed  likewise,  aud  noting 
the  time  it  takes  for  each  oil  to  reach  a  mark 
made  on  the  bottom  of  the  inclined  plane,  we  can 
observe  to  some  extent  the  greater  viscosity  or 
body  and  clinging  power  one  oil  possesses  over 
the  other.  By  increasing  the  temperature  by 
means  of  an  alcohol  lamp  or  otherwise,  we  can 


94        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

likewise  judge  of  the  relative  consistency  one  oil 
maintains  toward  another,  or  compare  it  with 
like  tests  made  with  oils  of  known  efficiency. 

Cold  Test — For  the  cold  test  of  petroleum  and 
lubricating  oils,  the  principal  process  usually  fol- 
lowed by  the  oil  trade  without  the  use  of  the 
many  expensive  apparatuses  in  the  market  for 
that  purpose  is  as  follows :  The  oil  is  brought 
into  4-oz.  glass  bottles  such  as  used  for  oil  samples, 
and  placed  in  an  empty  tomato  can  or  other 
suitable  vessel.  A  thermometer  is  placed  in  the 
oil  through  the  mouth  of  the  bottle  and  crushed 
ice  or  snow  with  common  salt  (chloride  of  sodium) 
in  alternate  layers  is  packed  around  the  bottle  up 
to  the  neck.  The  thermometer  is  examined  from 
time  to  time  as  to  the  temperature  at  which  the 
freezing  proceeds  and  the  degree  noted  at  which 
the  oil  solidifies. 

Fire  Test. — The  oil  to  be  tested  is  placed  in  a 
porcelain  dish  over  an  alcohol  or  oil  lamp.  A 
thermometer  is  suspended  in  the  oil  to  a  short 
distance  from  the  bottom.  The  lamp  is  lit  and 
allowed  to  slowly  heat  the  oil.  A  lighted  match 
is  from  time  to  time  passed  over  the  surface  of  the 
oil  and  the  degree  on  the  thermometer  noted  when 
a  flashing  from  the  oil  takes  place.  The  heating 
is  continued  until  the  lighted  match  sets  the  sur- 
face of  the  oil  on  fire.  The  degree  indicated  on 
the  thermometer  when  this  takes  place  indicates 
the  fire  t^st, 


TESTING    OILS.  95 

The  test  often  made  with  cylinder  oil,  by  pour- 
ing some  of  it  onto  a  cylinder  chest,  cannot  be 
considered  conclusive,  as  the  temperature  on  the 
outside  of  a  cylinder  chest  is  dry  and  scorching, 
while  the  temperature  inside  the  cylinder,  where 
the  oil  is  expected  to  perform  its  work,  is  moist. 
That  an  oil  would  show  less  tendency  to  evaporate 
in  the  dry  and  scorching  heat  on  top  of  the  cylin- 
der chest,  would  only  indicate  its  higher  fire  test, 
but  high  fire  test  is  no  criterion  as  to  its  quali- 
ties, as  the  temperature  inside  of  the  cylinder  can 
never  be  a  dry  and  scorching  one.  The  fire  test 
of  an  oil  should  always  be  in  proper  proportion 
to  its  heat-absorbing  quality,  or  it  will  suffer  de- 
composition and  produce  gummy  deposits  by  its 
inability  to  vaporize  fast  enough  under  the  fric- 
tional  heat  and  carry  its  vapors  diffused  with  the 
exhaust  steam  into  space. 

Simple  Way  of  Testing  Lubricating  Oils. — A  very 
handy  and  simple  way  of  testing  oils  is  to  place 
them  side  by  side  on  white  blotting  paper  and 
place  this  for  a  short  time  on  a  cylinder  chest  or 
a  steam  heater.  The  oil  which  penetrates  the 
blotting  paper  quickest  and  spreads  widest  over 
it,  is  always  the  poorest  and  thinnest  oil,  as  it 
shows  by  its  lightness  and  the  quick  disappear- 
ance of  its  outer  ring,  that  it  is  compounded  from 
material  of  very  light  specific  gravity.  If  by 
giving  it  some  time,  or  by  longer  exposure  to 


96        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

heat,  the  whole  of  the  oil  on  the  blotting  paper 
disappears,  the  sample  must  be  composed  entirely 
of  petroleum,  and  when  an  inner  ring,  with  a 
well  discernible  line,  is  formed  and  remains  longer, 
a  proportion  of  paraffine-holding  stock  must  have 
been  compounded  with  lighter  petroleum,  and 
when  a  center  ring,  with  decided  outline  and 
darker  color,  is  formed,  but  no  permanent  trans- 
lucency  is  imparted  to  the  paper,  the  compound 
must  be  made  of  a  light  hydrocarbon  oil,  with  an 
addition  of  still-residuum  stock,  however,  well  re- 
fined or  bleached.  If  the  oil  to  be  examined  has 
been  compounded  from  petroleum,  with  an  addi- 
tion of  lard  oil  or  tallow  oil  or  other  fatty  mat- 
ter, the  blotting  paper  will  retain  its  translucency 
in  the  center  long  after  the  petroleum,  which  at 
first  spread  rapidly  over  and  through  the  paper, 
has  disappeared.  Petroleum  penetrates  blotting 
paper  faster  than  fatty  oils  and  spreads  wider 
over  it  at  first,  but  dries  off  rapidly  and  its  trans- 
lucency disappears;  while  that  of  fatty  oils  re- 
mains, as  one  of  the  principal  characteristics  of 
fatty  oils  is  their  faculty  to  render  paper  perma- 
nently translucent. 

Practical  Tests  of  Lubricating  Oils. — Tests  made 
by  the  practical  use  of  the  oil  are  by  far  the  best, 
but  we  must  not  allow  ourselves  to  be  deceived 
and  be  led  to  attribute  too  rashly  any  unsatisfac- 
tory results  at  first  obtained,  to  the  oil  we 


TESTING    OILS.  97 

testing.  If  the  oil  previously  used  was  an  impure 
one  and  of  a  gumming  quality,  however  satis- 
factory it  may  have  appeared  to  work,  it  will 
have  left  its  gummy  deposits  in  crevices  and 
joints  and  in  the  interstices  in  the  metal,  which 
is  commonly  regarded  as  a  bearing  which  the 
oil  has  made  for  itself,  and  when  the  new  oil  to 
be  tested  is  applied  in  too  small  a  quantity,  we 
fail  to  observe  that  such  a  small  amount  of  purer 
oil  has  at  first  to  contend  with  and  dislodge  the 
deposits,  which  may  be  the  result  of  long  stand- 
ing and  the  accumulations  of  large  quantities  of 
the  oil  formerly  used.  It  is  this  fact  that  mis- 
leads and  often  causes  the  better  oil  to  be  con- 
demned, until  a  larger  and  longer  application 
proves  the  correctness  of  this  statement. 

These  same  facts  will  appear  when  we  apply 
for  a  test  a  poorer  and  impure  oil,  after  having 
used  an  oil  of  purer  and  better  quality.  The 
poorer  oil  finding  all  the  bearings  or  the  cylinder 
clean  and  no  gummy  deposits  to  contend  with 
will,  for  a  time,  appear  to  work  equally  as  well 
as  the  good  oil  that  was  in  use  before. 

Cylinders  and  bearings,  as  well  as  the  feeding 
cups,  should  be  carefully  cleaned  before  testing 
or  using  a  new  oil,  if  we  wish  to  be  able  to  judge 
correctly  as  to  its  quality. 

Objection  is  sometimes  made  by  engineers  to 
the  stringy  character  of  the  "  Valve-Oleum  "  oils, 
7  " 


98       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

but  this  stringy  nature,  while  perhaps  somewhat 
inconvenient  under  careless  handling,  constitutes 
the  very  life  of  the  oils,  secures  their  uniform 
consistency  in  cold  as  well  as  in  warm  weather, 
and  enables  them  to  cling  tenaciously  to  the 
metal,  absorb  the  frictional  heat  as  fast  as  it  is 
generated  by  the  motion,  and  permits  their  body 
to  be  of  light  enough  character  to  vaporize  rapidly 
into  space  with  the  heat  they  have  absorbed. 

Unscrupulous  parties,  making  imitations  of  the 
"  Valve-Oleum  "  oils,  use  their  stringy  charac- 
teristics solely  for  the  purpose  of  artificially  thick- 
ening light  and  otherwise  unsalable  petroleum 
oils,  but  such  mixtures  do  not  stay  together  ;  they 
separate  and  are  not  neutral  and  contain  free 
fatty  acids,  and  are  but  little  more  efficient  for 
lubricating  than  the  cheap  petroleum  distillates. 

By  the  blotter  test,  the  "  Valve-Oleum  "  oils 
show  their  fatty  characteristics  by  leaving  per- 
manent, translucent  center  spots  on  the  paper ; 
they  show  their  uniform  consistency  by  being 
slowly  absorbed  by  the  paper  and  spreading  over 
it  without  separating,  and  they  show  their  clean- 
liness by  leaving  no  deposit  of  impurities  on  the 
paper. 

To  detect  one  part  of  oleate  of  alumina  in  10 
parts  of  mineral  oil,  heat  the  sample  with  distilled 
hydrochloric  acid  over  a  water  bath  and  stir  well. 
The  hydrochloric  acid  absorbs  the  alumina  and 


TESTING    OILS.  99 

the  fatty  acid  remains  in  the  mineral  oil.  The 
mineral  oil  is  drawn  off  and  treated  with  soda  lye 
which  combines  with  the  fatty  acid  and  separates 
from  the  mineral  oil. 


XIII. 

SOLID    LUBRICANTS.    GREASES. 

SOLID  lubricants  consist  principally  of  filtered 
stock  or  vaseline,  and  they  are  fed  to  the  bearings 
through  cups  especially  devised  for  that  purpose, 
and  furnished  with  screw  pressure,  or  provided 
with  copper  rods,  which  latter,  touching  the  shaft, 
cause  feeding  of  the  vaseline  or  other  greases 
by  communicating  the  frictional  heat  to  them, 
whereby  they  are  liquified,  and  caused  to  flow 
onto  the  shaft  and  into  the  bearing. 

Greases  for  lubricating  consist  principally  of 
tallow  or  lard,  of  either  or  both,  together  with 
palm  oil,  rapeseed  oil,  degras,  rosin  oil  and 
petroleum  oils  brought  to  a  proper  consistency 
by  semi-saponification  with  weak  lye,  limewater, 
or  lime-soap,  or  lime-paste. 

Fatty  matter  of  all  kinds  and  quality,  residuum 
and  tar  from  refineries,  in  short  all  that  can  be 
worked  into  this  kind  of  lubricant,  and  can  be 
given  a  greasy  appearance  and  consistency,  is 
worked  into  what  is  known  and  sold  in  the 
market  under  the  name  of  u  Lubricating  Grease  " 
Cup  Grease,  Axle  Grease,  etc. 
(100) 


SOLID    LUBRICANTS,  GREASES.  101 

The  character  of  the  machinery  for  which  this 
kind  of  lubricant  is  used  is  of  the  coarser,  heavier 
kind ;  hence  less  attention  is  generally  given  to 
ascertain  the  indirect  advantage  that  would  re- 
sult from  the  use  of  grease  of  best  quality,  cost 
being  generally  the  only  point  considered. 

Here  also,  as  with  the  lubricating  oils,  it  is  the 
fatty  acid  alone  which  is  the  lubricating,  that  is, 
the  heat-absorbing  and  eradiating  principle,  held 
to  the  moving  surfaces  by  medium  of  the  stearin, 
palmitin,  rosin  or,  paraffin,  the  latter  being  ulti- 
mately left  as  concentrated  and  charred  gummy 
deposits. 

With  grease  lubricants  the  wear  and  abrasion 
of  the  metal  is  always  greater  than  with  oil 
lubrication,  as  the  consistency  of  the  grease  re- 
quires greater  accumulation  of  frictional  heat  to 
melt  and  convert  it  into  a  liquid  state  before  it  is 
enabled  to  reach  the  place  where  it  is  expected  to 
do  its  work. 

Carefully  conducted  experiments  have  demon- 
strated the  fact  that  it  takes  some  twenty-five  per 
cent  less  power  to  move  machinery  lubricated 
with  oil  than  when  lubricated  with  grease,  and 
at  a  some  thirty  to  thirty-five  per  cent  lower 
temperature. 

The  additions  of  lime,  graphite  (plumbago), 
load,  asbestos  fibre,  mica,  sulphur,  soapstone  (talc) 
and  all  other  inert  matter,  to  grease,  used  on 


102       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  PATS. 

machinery  moving  under  great  pressure  and 
heat,  act  only  as  a  medium,  filling  the  interstices 
in  the  metal,  and  serve  only  as  a  sort  of  cushion 
for  the  real  lubricant,  the  fatty  matter  contained 
in  the  grease.  These  inert  substances  cannot 
vaporize  with  the  frictional  heat  and  must,  there- 
fore, remain  as  gummy  accumulations  and  me- 
tallic abrasions  on  the  bearings. 

Manufacture  of  Greases. 

Most  greases  for  lubricating  are  made  in  the 
following  manner:  Common  red  rosin  oil,  say 
five  hundred  pounds,  is  heated  for  about  one 
hour  with  about  two  pounds  of  calcium  hydrate. 
It  is  then  allowed  to  cool  and  is  skimmed,  and 
from  ten  to  fifteen  pounds  of  rosin  oil-lime  soap 
are  slowly  stirred  in  until  the  mixture  assumes  a 
buttery  consistency.  Lime  soap  is  made  by 
slowly  heating  and  mixing  100  pounds  of  crude 
rosin  oil  with  some  80  pounds  of  hydrate  of  lime, 
and  boiling  into  a  molasses-like  consistency. 

For  rosin  grease,  lime  paste  is  made  by  slak- 
ing say  10  pounds  of  quicklime  with  about  40 
pounds  of  water ;  the  whole  is  then  passed 
through  a  sieve  to  separate  all  coarse  particles, 
and  to  allow  the  fine  lime-paste  to  settle.  The 
water  is  then  poured  off  and  from  6  to  8  gallons 
of  crude  rosin  oil  are  stirred  into  the  lime-paste 
and  allowed  to  stand  for  a  few  hours.  All  accu- 


SOLID    LUBRICANTS,  GfcEASES.  103 

mulated  water  is  then  drawn  off  and  from  8  to 
10  gallons  of  mineral  or  heavy  petroleum  oil  are 
added.  The  whole  is  then  heated  to  about  230° 
to  240°  F.,  stirred  and  well  mixed  and  allowed 
to  cool  and  set  to  proper  consistency. 

A  rosin  grease,  without  heating,  in  the  cold 
way,  is  made  by  mixing  and  stirring  well  to- 
gether 20  gallons  of  crude  paraffine  or  other 
mineral  oil,  in  which  some  80  pounds  of  rosin 
have  previously  been  dissolved  by  heat,  with  a 
lime-paste  made  by  slaking  one-half  to  three- 
quarters  of  a  bushel  of  lime,  sifting  it  from  all 
coarse  particles  and  separating  most  of  the  water 
from  it.  It  is  stirred  until  a  smooth,  uniform 
consistency  is  obtained.  From  3  to  5  gallons  of 
crude  rosin  oil  are  then  slowly  added  and  stirred 
to  a  proper  buttery  consistency.  The  product  of 
this  process  is  the  well  known  "  Valve-Oleum 
Zola  Axle  Grease  ".  Additions  of  fats  or  fatty 
oils  improve  its  quality. 

The  following  are  some  formulas  after  which 
nearly  all  grease  lubricants  are  manufactured  : 

Half  a  pound  of  caustic  soda  is  dissolved  in 
one  gallon  of  water  ;  from  three  to  five  pounds  of 
tallow  and  one-half  to  one  gallon  rosin  oil  are 
added,  and  the  whole  is  heated  to  about  210°  F. 
and  well  mixed,  and  then  stirred,  as  it  cools,  to 
its  proper  consistency. 

Forty  gallons   petroleum    oil,  fifty  pounds  of 


104      FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND 

yellow  grease  or  tallow  and  sixty  pounds  of  rosin 
are  heated  together  at  a  temperature  of  about 
240°  F.  From  two  to  two-and-a-half  gallons  of 
soda  lye  are  then  gradually  added,  and  all  is 
mixed  and  stirred  well.  When  cold,  in  about 
twelve  hours,  it  will  be  ready  for  use. 

For  a  cup  grease,  seventy-five  pounds  of  tallow, 
thirty  to  fifty  pounds  of  rosin,  some  thirty  to 
forty  gallons  of  paraffine  oil,  and  about  ten  to 
fifteen  pounds  of  oleate  of  soda  or  common  soap 
are  melted  together  and  stirred  until  a  uniform 
and  smooth  butter)^  consistency  is  obtained. 

Also  :  One  part  of  tallow  or  yellow  grease, 
four  parts  of  cylinder  stock  or  paraffine  oil  of  a 
low  gravity,  and  one-quarter  part  of  caustic  l}e 
of  from  fifteen  to  twenty  degrees  Baume,  are 
heated  and  stirred  until  cold  and  of  proper  con- 
sistency. 

Dark  Axle  Grease:  Thirty-five  gallons  West 
Virginia  black  oil,  in  which  some  fifty  pounds  of 
rosin  have  been  dissolved  by  heat,  and  lime-paste 
from  half  a  bushel  of  lime,  are  well  stirred  and 
brought  to  a  proper  consistency  by  the  slow  addi- 
tion of  from  four  to  six  gallons  of  crude  rosin  oil. 

Linseed  Oil  Grease:  One  hundred  pounds  of 
tallow,  one  hundred  pounds  of  rosin  and  ten  to 
twelve  gallons  of  linseed  oil,  with  from  six  to 
eight  gallons  of  caustic  soda-lye  of  about  five 
degrees  Baume,  are  boiled  together  and  allowed 
to  cool  and  set  to  proper  consistency. 


SOLID    LUBRICANTS,  GREASES.  105 

One  gallon  petroleum  oil,  one-half  pound  tal- 
low, one-half  pound  palm  butter,  one-half  pound 
plumbago  and  one-quarter  of  a  pound  of  soda  are 
heated  arid  kept  for  about  an  hour  at  a  temper- 
ature of  about  180°  F.,  then  allowed  to  cool 
down,  and  are  stirred  until  well  setting  to  con- 
sistency. 

Or:  Water,  one  gallon,  one-half  pound  soda, 
three  to  five  pounds  of  tallow,  from  six  to  ten 
pounds  of  palm  oil  and  sufficient  rosin  to  give 
the  desired  consistency,  are  heated  to  about  250° 
F.,  well  stirred  until  cooled  down  to  about  70° 
F.,  and  allowed  to  set. 

Or :  Ten  pounds  of  common  soap  well  dried 
and  cut  in  small  pieces,  from  fifteen  to  twenty 
pounds  of  filtered  cylinder  stock  and  about  fif- 
teen pounds  of  heavy  petroleum  oil,  are  heated  to 
about  230°  to  240°  F.,  and  well  stirred  until  all 
the  soap  is  dissolved,  and  the  whole  is  then  al- 
lowed to  cool  to  proper  consistency. 

Or:  Palm  oil,  tallow,  or  tallow  oil  and  soda, 
dissolved  in  as  little  water  as  possible,  are  heated 
and  stirred  into  a  uniform  buttery  mass. 

Or:  One  gallon  crude  rosin  oil,  two  to  three 
pounds  of  quicklime  slaked  with  about  one  gal- 
lon of  water  are  mixed  and  allowed  to  settle  and 
the  adhering  water  drawn  off.  Heavy  petroleum 
oil  and  from  three  to  five  pounds  of  graphite 
(plumbago)  are  then  added,  and  all  well  mixed 


106       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

and  stirred  to  a  uniform  and  buttery  consistency. 

One  per  cent  of  castor  oil  soap  will  solidify 
paraffine  oils  in  vacuum  to  a  solid  grease. 

The  manufacture  of  all  greases  is  based  on  a 
semi-saponification  of  fatty  matter.  Below  are 
given  a  number  of  formulas  for  the  manufacture 
of  grease  as  practised  in  Germany  in  latter  years. 

Palm  Oil  Grease. — I.  Melt  together,  tallow  150 
parts,  palm  oil  100,  soda  25,  water  160. 

II.  Tallow  100  parts,  palm   oil  160,  soda  35, 
water  300. 

III.  Rosin  100  Ibs.,  palm  oil  6}  Ibs.,  refined 
rosin  oil  18}  Ibs.,  soda  lye  of  22°  Be.  24}  Ibs., 
water  2  Ibs.     Melt  the  rosin  in  an  iron  kettle  over 
a  moderate  fire  and  saponify  it  by  adding  the 
caustic  soda  lye  and  the  water.     The  melted  palrn 
oil  together  with  the  rosin  oil  is  then  brought 
into  the  kettle  and  by  crutching  combined  with 
the  saponified  rosin.     Stirring  is  then  continued 
till  the  mass  is  of  uniform  consistency. 

Yellow  Axle  Grease. — American  rosin  100  Ibs., 
caustic  soda  lye  of  20°  Be.  12}  Ibs.,  crude  rosin 
oil  1 2}  Ibs.  Melt  the  rosin  in  an  iron  kettle,  then 
add  gradually  the  soda  lye,  and  finally,  whilst 
stirring  vigorously,  the  rosin  oil. 

Axle  Grease  prepared  in  the  cold  way. — The  pro- 
cess of  the  production  of  this  grease  is  based  upon 
the  property  of  rosin  oil  to  saponify  with  ease 
when  mixed  with  slaked  lime  in  the  form  of 


SOLID    LUBRICANTS,  GREASES.  107 

powder.  The  lime  used  must  be  fat  and  contain 
up  from  96  to  98  per  cent,  calcium  hydrate. 
A  content  of  5  to  8  per  cent,  of  magnesia  in  the 
lime  is  a  drawback  to  saponification,  small  dull 
globules  of  fat  being  segregated.  Saponification 
is  most  readily  effected  at  64°  to  68°  F. 

I.  Blue  mineral  oil  70  per  cent.,  slaked  lime 
10  per  cent.,  rosin  oil  15  per  cent. 

II.  Blue  mineral  oil  60  per  cent.,  slaked  lime 
9  per  cent.,  gypsum  18  per  cent.,  rosin  oil  13  per 
cent. 

III.  Blue   mineral   oil    36   per   cent,  naptha 
residue  36  per  cent.,  slaked  lime  11.5  per  cent, 
rosin  oil  15.5  per  cent. 

IV.  Blue  mineral  oil  20  per  cent.,  gypsum  40 
per  cent.,  rosin  oil  8.5  per  cent.,  lime  8.5  per 
cent. 

Bring  the  mineral  oil  and  the  very  dry  slaked 
lime  into  a  vat  and  after  mixing  for  half  an  hour 
pass  the  mixture  through  a  hair-sieve  (25  to  30 
meshes  to  the  square  centimeter)  into  another 
vessel,  pressing  through  any  particles  of  lime. 
Then  add  the  naphtha  and  other  ingredients  and 
stir  thoroughly.  Finally  add  the  rosin  oil  and 
knead  the  whole  to  a  butyraceous  mass. 


XIV. 

SOME    PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS. 

WHEN  a  cylinder  becomes  partly  worn,  or 
ridges  and  scars  are  cut  on  its  bright  surfaces,  or 
a  partial  wearing  of  the  piston  rod  takes  place, 
it  is  absurd  to  lay  such  results  to  the  oil.  Oil 
cannot  cut  metal,  the  cause  of  such  injuries  being 
a  purely  mechanical  one;  some  parls  are  loose 
or  out  of  line  or  otherwise  defective  in  construc- 
tion, and  no  amount  of  oil  or  fat  of  whatever 
quality  is  capable  of  preventing  gradual  increase 
of  the  injury  and  final  necessity  for  extensive 
repairs. 

No  kind  of  oil  or  fat  can  cut  ridges  or  scars  in 
metal.  It  requires  metal  or  inert  substances, 
such  as  silica,  lime,  emery  or  mica  to  do  it.  They 
do  it  suddenly  and  violently  when  dry  and  by 
themselves,  and  they  do  it  slowly  and  silently 
when  intermixed  and  saturated  with  oil  or  fat. 
The  idea  that  mixing  silex,  sulphur  or  plum- 
bago (graphite),  etc.,  with  oils  or  fats,  to  give 
them  increased  lubricating  power,  is  erroneous. 
These  inert  matters  have  nothing  whatever  to 
(108) 


SOME    PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS.  109 

do  with  the  lubricating,  which  is  alone  done  by 
the  oily  part  of  the  compound,  leaving  the  inert 
matter  behind,  to  accumulate  on  the  bearings, 
and  with  every  new  application,  by  and  by  will 
fairly  choke  the  cylinder  and  the  valve-chest. 

All  fatty  oils  and  fats,  without  exception  and 
of  however  excellent  quality,  either  alone  or  com- 
pounded with  mineral- oil,  when  applied  as  lubri- 
cants, are  decomposed  by  the  steam  and  by  the 
frictional  heat  they  absorb,  and  their  lighter  con- 
stituents vaporize  and  leave  the  heavier  ones  to 
form  gummy  deposits  with  the  fine  metallic  par- 
ticles, the  result  of  abrasion,  and  with  the  im- 
purities in  the  water  used. 

Such  deposits  cause  dragging  of  the  machinery 
and  waste  of  power,  accumulate  gradually  in 
crevices  and  fill  the  smallest  interstices  in  the 
surface  of  the  metal ;  they  settle  all  around  the 
joints  and  are  found  in  abundance  behind  the 
rings  and  piston. 

The  injurious  action  from  the  use  of  tallow  in 
cylinders  is  well  known.  The  action  of  the 
stearin  on  the  metal  increases  the  abrasion,  and 
injury  is  wrought  slowly  but  entirely  uniformly, 
and  by  no  means  in  cutting  ridges  and  scars  in 
the  iron. 

When  tallow  or  very  impure  fatty  oils  have 
been  used,  or  they  have  been  further  compounded 
with  inert  matter,  such  as  plumbago,  etc.,  the 


110       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

accumulations  are  still  more  abundant  and  de- 
tached parts  are  frequently  found  worked  into 
marble-like  balls  by  the  continuous  churning 
motion  of  the  piston  ;  they  dry  against  the  heated 
metal  and  gradually  assume  the  hardness  of 
stone  or  iron. 

Lubricating  oils  which  are  not  so  constituted 
as  to  decompose  readily  and  form  gummy  de- 
posits, are  capable  of  softening  and  gradually 
dissolving  such  hardened  deposits.  Some  parti- 
cles partly  dissolved  become  detached  and  get 
between  the  piston  and  the  cylinder  and  com- 
mence cutting  and  scraping  into  the  smooth  sides 
of  the  latter.  A  groaning  noise  gives  audible 
warning  and,  if  the  impediment  is  not  removed 
or  relieved  by  speedy  softening  and  dissolving 
with  more  copious  application  of  better  oil,  the 
injury  inflicted  may  become  very  serious  and 
may  necessitate  the  stopping  of  all  machinery 
and  require  expensive  repairing. 

There  are  also  numerous  instances  on  record 
where  small  particles  of  metal  broke  off  from 
worn-out  springs  with  too  sharp  and  not  prop- 
erly rounded  edges,  or  from  careless  keying  of 
the  valves,  and  finding  their  way  between  the 
sides  of  the  cylinder  and  piston,  cut  heavy  ridges 
in  the  iron.  It  is  ridiculous  to  blame  the  oil  for 
it. 

Another  source  of  injury  in  cylinders,  other- 


SOME    PRACTICAL    SUGGESTIONS.  Ill 

wise  perfectly  clean,  arises  often  from  the  use  of 
poor  packing,  overdone  with  sulphur  or  over- 
heated in  vulcanizing,  which  has  become  brittle 
from  exposure  and  age,  or  being  burnt  from  long 
contact  with  the  heated  metal.  The  ragged 
edges  of  such  packing  will  become  detached, 
contaminate  the  oil,  and  cause  injury. 

If  a  babbit  or  other  metallic  lining  has  been 
placed  in  a  bearing  in  a  bungling  manner,  or 
small  particles  of  the  metal  have  broken  loose 
from  a  raggedly  bored  hole  through  which  the 
oil  is  to  be  applied,  and  such  particles  find  their 
way  between  the  moving  parts,  cutting  and  scar- 
ring of  the  metal  cannot  be  prevented  with  the 
best  of  lubricants. 

If  an  employee  forgets  and  fails  to  apply  oil  in 
proper  time,  and  the  parts  run  dry,  get  heated 
and  cutting  takes  place,  the  trouble  is  generally 
attributed  to  the  lubricant,  but  all  this  proves 
that  it  is  impossible  for  an  oil  to  "  cut  metal," 
but  that  impurities  in  oils,  accidentally  or  inten- 
tionally combined  with  inert  matter,  will  do  it. 

Acid  in  oil  is  often  regarded  as  the  cause  when 
cutting  of  metal  has  taken  place.  That  can  be 
the  cause  when  fatty  oils  are  used  for  lubricating 
as  they  are  liable  to  absorb  oxygen  from  the  at- 
mosphere and,  becoming  rancid,  develop  their 
constituent  fatty  acids  which  act  injuriously  on 
metal.  But  acid  cannot  be  in  petroleum  oils  un- 


112       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

less  left  there  from  faulty  washing,  or  when  hav- 
ing been  compounded  with  crude  fatty  oils.  By 
the  process  of  the  manufacture  of  the  Valve-Oleum 
oils,  these  fatty  acids  fixed  to  a  base  have  thereby 
been  rendered  innocuous. 

The  parts  of  machinery  where  oil  is  used  for 
lubricating  should  be  kept  clean  and  carefully 
examined,  to  see  if  they  are  in  proper  condition  ; 
that  no  foreign  matter  has  by  chance  got  between 
the  moving  parts  or  is  liable  to  do  so  ;  that  keys 
on  wristpins  and  bolts  on  bearings,  hangers,  etc., 
have  not  gradually  been  loosened  by  the  constant 
jarring  of  the  machinery  ;  that  flooring  has  not 
settled  under  heavy  weight  and  thereby  the 
shafting,  attached  to  it,  been  put  out  of  line  or 
otherwise  interfered  with. 

All  these  points  are  generally  only  thought  of 
after  some  accident  has  happened  or  warning  is 
given  by  a  groaning  or  squeaking  noise,  and 
when  some  parts  are  found  heated  and  cut,  and 
the  blame  is  unjustly  laid  to  the  oil,  until  investi- 
gation reveals  the  real  cause. 


XV. 

LUBRICATORS    AND    CUPS. 

THE  many  contrivances  commonly  called 
"  lubricators,"  by  which  lubricants  are  applied 
to  machinery,  are  often  much  trouble  to  engi- 
neers, as  the  adoption  of  these  contrivances  is, 
with  many,  as  much  a  consideration  of  price  only 
as  it  is  in  the  purchasing  of  lubricants  ;  but  with 
lubricators  as  well  as  with  lubricants  the  best  are 
always  the  cheapest.  It  is  a  great  oversight  to 
make  the  lubricant  subject  to  the  manner  of  ap- 
plying it,  as  it  is  the  lubricant  that  is  to  do  the 
work  and  not  the  mechanical  contrivance  through 
which  it  is  forced  to  do  it.  There  are  number- 
less such  contrivances,  many  very  ingenious  ones 
and  others  of  faulty  construction,  rather  interfer- 
ing with,  than  assisting,  the  lubricant  to  do  its 
work  properly. 

Cylinder  oils  are  applied  by  the  hand-pump, 
by  the  automatic  pump,  or  through  the  well 
known  sight-feed  lubricators. 

The  hand-pump  admits  the  oil  too  irregularly, 
too  much  at  one  time,  not  enough  at  another ^ 
either  from  neglect  or  oversight. 
§  (U3) 


114       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND   FATS. 

The  automatic  pump,  such  as  the  first  and  well- 
known  "  Moses  Pump,"  and  the  later  improved 
styles,  are  the  best  means  for  applying  oils  to  cyl- 
inders with  proper  regularity.  With  the  auto- 
matic pump  the  oil  is  not  brought  in  contact  with 
water  or  steam  before  entering  the  cylinder.  It 
supplies  the  oil  with  the  starting  of  the  engine 
and  ceases  to  do  so  when  the  engine  is  stopped, 
and  all  the  attention  that  is  required  is  to  keep 
the  pump  supplied  with  oil.  Any  kind  of  oil,  if 
clean  and  free  from  grit,  can  be  fed  through  these 
pumps,  and  the  amount  to  be  fed  is  easily  regu- 
lated by  the  shorter  or  longer  stroke  that  is  given 
at  its  connection  with  the  engine. 

The  proper  feeding  of  cylinder  oil  through  the 
modem  sight-feed  cup,  now  generally  used,  de- 
pends entirely  on  the  intelligence  of  the  engi- 
neer as  how  to  use  it  properly.  All  the  many 
sight-feed  cups  are  devised  on  the  principle  of 
displacing  the  oil  from  the  cup,  drop  by  drop,  by 
the  water  condensed  from  the  steam  before  the 
latter  reaches  the  cup.  It  requires  a  little  time 
and  patience  when  starting  or  refilling  these  cups, 
to  wait  until  sufficient  steam  has  been  condensed 
and  enough  water  been  accumulated  to  oper- 
ate the  cup  properly  and  get  the  oil  to  feed  with 
proper  regularity  ;  otherwise  the  steam  will  churn 
the  oil.  Introducing  some  water  in  the  cup 
Before  filling  with  the  oil,  and  slowly  turning  on 


LUBRICATORS    AND    CUPS.  115 

the  steam  and  regulating  the  feeding,  will  prevent 
overheating  and  allow  of  regulating  at  once  the 
proper  condensing  of  the  steam  and  the  regular 
displacement  of  the  oil. 

The  use  of  impure  oils  should  be  carefully 
avoided  and  the  cleaning  of  the  cup  not  attempted 
by  blowing  live  steam  through  it,  as  thereby  the 
fatty  deposits  from  the  oil,  in  connection  with 
impurities  in  the  water  used  for  the  steam,  are 
baked  to  the  sides  and  openings  of  the  tubes  in 
successive  layers  by  the  latent  heat  held  there  by 
the  metal,  in  precisely  the  same  manner  as  the 
scale  in  boilers  is  produced  from  the  slimy,  earthy 
deposits  of  the  water,  by  baking  and  incrusting 
them  on  the  iron  by  the  latent  heat  under  the 
prevalent  and  injudicious  practice  of  u  blowing 
off  boilers."  Sight-feed  cups  should  be  taken  off 
from  time  to  time  and  carefully  cleaned  with 
benzine  or  coal  oil  and  a  swapper. 

It  is,  however,  not  a  question  alone  of  merely 
getting  the  oil  into  the  cylinder,  but  the  oil  must 
possess  sufficient  power  to  cling  to  the  metallic 
surfaces  of  the  cylinder  and  the  valves,  in  order 
to  resist  its  being  blown  out  with  the  exhaust 
before  its  work  has  been  done. 

An  oil  that  does  its  work  satisfactorily  when 
applied  direct  with  a  pump,  but  will  not  do  so 
through  any  of  the  many  patent  sight-feeding 
devices,  proves  conclusively  that  the  lubricator 


116       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

or  the  wrong  handling  of  it  should  be  blamed, 
not  the  oil. 

There  is  an  endless  number  of  cups  of  all  kinds 
of  construction  to  apply  lubricants  to  the  bearings 
of  shafting  and  all  kinds  of  machinery.  For 
feeding  oils,  those  will  command  the  most  atten- 
tion that  will  allow  the  operator  to  see  at  a  glance 
if  the  feeding  is  regular  and  uninterrupted. 
They  all  require  more  or  less  adjusting  to  prop- 
erly regulate  the  amount  to  be  fed  and  allow  the 
oils  to  pass  through  the  aperture,  according  to 
their  limpidity  or  viscosity. 

In  some  of  them  the  flow  of  oil  is  regulated 
by  controlling  the  width  of  the  aperture  with 
opening  and  closing  devices ;  in  others  a  wick  is 
placed  over  the  aperture,  to  secure  regular  and 
slow  feeding  on  capillary  principle,  and  still  in 
others  a  rod,  with  flattened  side,  is  placed  to  pre- 
vent a  too  rapid  flow  of  the  oil.  If  they  are 
properly  handled  and  attended  to  and  proper 
judgment  is  used  in  adjusting  them,  in  accord- 
ance with  the  characteristics  of  the  oil  used,  most 
of  them  will  answer  their  purpose  satisfactorily. 

In  those  cups  which  feed  with  a  wick,  it  is 
important  that  the  number  of  strands  in  the 
wick  should  be  in  proper  proportion  to  the  lim- 
pidity or  viscosity  of  the  oil  used,  and  in  those 
cups  separated  with  a  metallic  stem  with  a  flat- 
tenec}  side,  the  latter  should  be  filed  still  flatter 


LUBRICATORS   AND   CUPS.  117 

or  the  stem  removed  entirely  when  a  change  is 
made  from  a  limpid  and  easy-flowing  oil  to  one 
which  has  a  heavy  body  of  uniform  consistency. 
In  all  cups  exposed  to  varying  temperatures, 
only  such  oils  should  be  used  as  will  not  congeal 
and  thereby  become  unable  to  flow  and  feed 
through  the  aperture.  Frequently  when  chang- 
ing from  one  oil  to  another,  and  especially  when 
the  oil  first  used  was  of  a  gummy  character,  and 
the  new  oil  does  not  possess  this  objectionable 
quality,  the  oil  may  at  first  feed  well  enough 
through  the  aperture,  without  the  necessity  of 
changing  its  adjustment,  but  on  account  of  its 
gradual  loosening  the  almost  imperceptible  coat- 
ing or  gummy  film  on  the  sides  of  the  cup,  the 
latter  is  apt  to  obstruct  the  opening  and  the  oil 
will  be  unable  to  force  its  passage  through,  and 
the  bearing  running  warm,  the  oil  will  unjustly 
be  condemned  as  being  a  poor  lubricant. 

Cups  especially  designed  for  feeding  grease  are 
also  of  varied  construction  and  character.  These 
cups  should  also  have  apertures  proportionate  to 
the  melting  quality  of  the  grease  used. 

There  are  cups  where  it  is  intended  to  force 
the  grease  down  by  pressure  or  by  springs,  which 
consequently  require  much  attention  and  adjust- 
ing and  cannot  be  considered  automatic  feeders. 

Those  cups  provided  with  metallic  steins,  rest- 
ing on  the  shaft,  to  work  on  the  principle  that 


118       FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

the  frictional  heat  conveyed  through  these  stems 
will  melt  the  grease  and  make  it  limpid  enough 
to  flow  down  on  them,  also  fail  to  secure  perfect 
lubrication,  as  they  can  only  begin  and  continue 
to  lubricate  after  sufficient  heat  has  accumulated 
by  which  to  keep  the  grease  melting. 

As  running  machinery  under  increased  heat 
means  expansion  of  the  metal,  abrasion  of  the 
parts  and  waste  of  power,  the  deficiency  of  grease 
lubrication  is  apparent.  The  only  reliable  lubri- 
cating with  grease  is  through  long-slotted  aper- 
tures in  the  box,  which  allow  the  grease  to  lay 
directly  on  the  parts  in  motion. 

When  lard  oil  and  tallow  oil  were  the  only 
means  for  lubricating  locomotive  engines,  these 
oils  would  readily  solidify  in  their  feeding  cups 
in  cold  weather,  and  all  the  cups  had  to  be 
equipped  with  steam  mantles  to  keep  the  oil  in  a 
fluid  condition.  When  the  petroleum  oils  came 
into  use  they  were  applied  with  oil  pumps  and 
through  sight-feed  lubricators  and  the  use  of  the 
latter  became  almost  universal. 

Some  promoters  of  grease  lubrication  conceived 
the  idea  to  apply  grease  to  cylinder  lubrication, 
and  constructed  special  sight-feed  cups  intended 
to  allow  the  grease  kept  liquid  by  steam  to  be 
carried  drop  by  drop  with  the  steam  into  the 
cylinder. 

Disregarding  all  theory  as  to  the  process  of 


LUBRICATORS    AND    CUPS.  119 

lubrication,  they  had  grease  compounds  made  of 
petroleum  steam-refined  cylinder  stock  and  tallow 
oil.  Lubricating  cylinders  with  tallow  having 
long  ago  been  abandoned  on  account  of  the  in- 
jurious action  on  the  metal  of  the  cylinders,  the 
tallow  combined  now  to  form  in  conjunction  with 
the  impurities  contained  in  steam-refined  stock 
and  the  metallic  abrasions,  gummy  deposits  that 
accumulated  in  the  cylinders  and  impeded  the 
power.  The  application  of  grease  for  lubricating 
cylinders  in  this  manner  was  also  found  incon- 
venient when  the  engine  was  stopped,  and  when 
the  lubricant  was  exposed  in  winter  to  severe  cold 
the  grease  became  congealed  and  failed  to  flow 
until  again  liquified  by  the  steam. 


XVI. 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY. 

WEIGHT  is  the  measure  of  gravity.  The 
specific  gravity  of  any  body  is  the  proportion 
which  the  weight  of  a  certain  amount  of  that 
body  bears  to  the  same  amount  of  another  body 
which  is  taken  as  standard.  The  standard 
adopted  for  solid  and  liquid  bodies  is  water,  at 
the  temperature  of  60°  F. 

The  specific  gravity  of  liquids  is  most  accur- 
ately ascertained  by  means  of  the  specific  gravity 
bottle,  which  is  so  constructed  as  to  hold  exactly 
1000  grains  of  distilled  water.  The  water  being 
emptied  out  and  the  bottle  filled  with  the  liquid 
to  be  tested,  is  weighed  on  a  correct  scale.  The 
result  gives  the  weight  of  a  volume  of  the  fluid 
equal  in  bulk  to  1000  grains  of  water,  and  this 
weight,  divided  by  1000,  represents  the  specific 
gravity  of  the  liquid. 

The  specific  gravity  of  oils  and  fats,  which  are 

all  lighter  than  water,  except  some  of  the  tar 

oils,    is   handily    ascertained    by   means   of  the 

Baume  Hydrometer,  constructed  for  the  weighing 

(-120) 


SPECIFIC    GRAVITY.  121 

of  liquids  lighter  than  water.  The  oil  is  put  in 
the  hydrometer  jar — a  tall  glass  vessel — and  the 
hydrometer  placed  in  it  so  that  it  will  float  up- 
right. The  specific  gravity  of  the  oil  is  exactly 
indicated  by  the  degree  on  the  scale  of  the  hy- 
drometer to  which  the  latter  sinks.  The  measure 
is  always  taken  at  60°  F.,  and  for  every  ten 
degrees  above  that  temperature,  one  degree  is 
subtracted  from  the  reading,  and  for  every  ten 
degrees  below  60°  F.,  one  degree  is  added  to  the 
reading  on  the  hydrometer  scale.  Fats  and  oils, 
solid  at  ordinary  temperature,  should  be  heated 
until  liquid  enough  to  allow  the  hydrometer  to 
float  easily  in  them,  to  indicate  their  specific 
gravity. 

Table  of  Baume  degrees,  the  specific  gravity  they 
represent  and  the  corresponding  weight  of  the 
liquids  per  gallon  : 

Degree  Baume".         Specific  Gravity.        Pounds  in  One  Gallon. 

10  1.000         8.33 

11  .9929  8.27 

12  .9859  8.21 

13  .9790  8.16 

14  .9722  8.10 

15  (castor  oil)  .9655        8.04 

16  .9589        7.99 

17  .9523        7.93 


122 


J   FRICTION, 

LUBRICATION, 

OILS  AND  FATS. 

18 

.9459 

7.88 

19 

.9395 

7.83 

20 

.9333 

7.78 

21 

.9271 

7.72 

22 

.9210 

7.67 

23 

.9150 

7.62 

24 

.9090 

7.57 

25 

.9032 

7.53 

26 

.8974 

7.48 

27 

.8917 

7.43 

28 

.8860 

7.38 

29 

.8805 

7.34 

30 

.8750 

7.29 

31 

.8695 

7.24 

32 

.8641 

7.20 

33 

.8588 

7.15 

34 

.8536 

7.11 

35 

.8484 

7.07 

36 

.8433 

7.03 

37 

.8383 

6.98 

38 

.8333 

6.94 

39 

.8284 

6.90 

40 

.8235 

6.86 

41 

.8187 

6.82 

42 

.8139 

6.78 

43 

.8092 

6.74 

44 

.8045 

6.70 

45 

.8000 

6.66 

46 

.7954 

6.63 

SPECIFIC    GRAVITY.  123 


47 

.7909 

6.59 

48 

.7865 

6.55 

49 

.7821 

6.52 

50 

.7777 

6.48 

51 

.7734 

6.44 

52 

.7692 

6.41 

53 

.7650 

6.37 

54 

.7608 

6.34 

55 

.7567 

6.30 

56 

.7526 

6.27 

57 

.7486 

6.24 

58 

.7446 

6.20 

59 

.7407 

6.17 

60 

.7368 

6.14 

61 

.7329 

6.11 

62 

.7290 

6.07 

63 

.7253 

6.04 

64 

.7216 

6.01 

65 

.7179 

5.98 

66 

.7142 

5.95 

67 

.7106 

5.92 

68 

.7070 

5.89 

69 

.7035 

5.86 

70 

.7000 

5.83 

75 

.6829 

5.69 

80 

.6666 

5.55 

85 

.6511 

5.42 

90 

.6363 

5.30 

95 

.6222 

5.18 

XVII. 

REVIEW  OF  THE  PETROLEUM  OIL 
INDUSTRY  TO  1915. 

LOOKING  over  the  history  of  the  petroleum 
industry  during  the  last  decade  there  appears 
little  to  be  recorded  as  new.  The  text  books  on 
the  subject  consist  of  products  of  compilations  of 
facts  long  known  and  a  chaos  of  suggestions  for 
new  procedures  of  little  commercial  value. 

The  latest  and  most  elaborate  work  published 
in  the  German  language,  in  1913,  by  Engler, 
under  the  title  "  Das  Erdoel "  contains  number- 
less reports  on  laboratory  investigations  and  ex- 
periments, comments,  and  some  of  the  many 
patents  taken  out  here  and  abroad,  but  nothing 
strictly  new  that  has  not  been  forestalled  some 
years  ago  by  the  elaborate  researches  and  com- 
pilations by  Sir  Boverton  Redwood  published  in 
England,  the  best  information  on  the  subject 
so  far. 

For  many  years  it  was  supposed  that  petroleum 

oil  could  only  be  looked  for  in  certain  localities 

where  it  was  easily  obtained  from  deposits  near 

the  surface  of  the  soil.     Now   with  the  greater 

(124) 


THE    PETROLEUM    OIL    INDUSTRY.  125 

facilities  for  drilling  to  great  depths,  petroleum 
and  gas  have  been  found  in  many  other  localities, 
often  at  from  two  to  three  hundred  feet  under- 
ground, and  it  appears  that  oil  and  gas  are  stored 
almost  anywhere  at  still  greater  depths. 

Wherever  in  the  bowels  of  the  earth  in  pre- 
historic times  vegetation  and  animal  life  existed 
and  have  for  times  inmemorable  been  left  to  decay 
and  transformation  underneath  overlying  strata, 
the  mysterious  work  of  nature  appears  to  have 
changed  them  into  deposits  of  gas  and  oil. 
Petroleum  oil  represents  an  endless  series  of  com- 
pounds of  hydrogen  and  carbon,  the  hydrogen 
predominating  in  the  composition  of  the  com- 
pounds of  lighter  specific  gravity,  and  carbon  in 
the  heavier  ones. 

When  petroleum  is  subjected  to  heat  for  its 
distillation,  we  separate  its  component  parts  from 
each  other,  those  of  lighter  specific  gravity  being 
only  followed  by  those  of  heavier  specific  gravity. 
Each  different  product  of  distillation  when  again 
subjected  to  distillation  by  itself,  yields  again 
compounds  of  lighter  specific  gravities  and  com- 
pounds of  heavier  ones.  The  distillation  is  car- 
ried on  in  various  styles  of  apparatus,  and  different 
ways  of  operation,  more  or  less  known,  or  kept 
secret  by  corporations  and  individual  refiners  and 
manufacturers.  There  has  been  very  little  sys- 
tematic study  of  the  petroleum  industry.  Its 


126        FKICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

exploitation  has  been  a  wanton  struggle  only 
for  the  wealth  to  be  obtained  from  it. 

For  commercial  purposes  we  obtain  by  the 
distillation  of  petroleum  oils :  Benzine,  gasoline, 
naptha,  burning  oils,  lubricating  oils,  paraffine 
wax,  and  coke.  Of  all  these  products  the  burning 
oils  became  first  of  commercial  value,  and  the 
demand  for  them  superseding  the  use  of  tallow 
and  wax  candles  for  illumination,  the  efforts  for 
greater  improvements  in  the  distilling  process 
for  their  production  were  thereby  much  stimu- 
lated. 

The  energetic  motive  power  of  petroleum  oils 
and  gasoline  having  been  discovered  and  applied 
to  gas  engines  and  automobiles,  much  of  the 
steam  power  used  for  industrial  purposes  has 
been  displaced  by  it,  and  the  demand  for  gasoline 
has  so  enormously  increased  that  the  greatest  ef- 
forts are  at  present  being  made  for  its  increased  pro- 
duction from  petroleum  oils.  Numerous  sugges- 
tions have  been  made,  but  with  slight  success  so 
far,  as  it  appears  that  from  crude  petroleum  of  a 
given  degree  of  specific  gravity  only  so  much 
output  of  light  hydrocarbon  compounds  can  be 
obtained  as  the  oil  naturally  possesses  and  no 
more ;  and  it  seems  to  be  a  fact  that  more  output 
from  heavier  distillates  can  only  be  produced  if 
an  equivalent  amount  of  hydrogen  from  outside 
sources  can  be  fundamentally  incorporated  with 


THE    PETROLEUM    OIL    INDUSTRY.  127 

the  heavier  grades  of  the  distillation.  An  in- 
creased supply  of  gasoline  is  now  obtained  by  the 
process  of  compression  of  natural  gas  into  the 
liquid  state,  natural  gas  also  finding  much  use- 
ful application  for  heating  and  cooking  purposes. 

Burning  oils  are  also  employed  for  the  produc- 
tion of  motive  power  for  internal  combustion 
engines,  but  they  do  not  possess  as  high  explosive 
characteristics  as  the  lighter  hydrocarbon  pro- 
ducts (gasoline,  naptha),  and  many  attempts  have 
been  made  for  improvement  by  admixtures  of 
peroxide  of  hydrogen,  nitro-benzol  and  other 
chemicals. 

As  to  the  formation  of  new  crude  oil  compounds 
by  destructive  distillation  of  distillates  of  petro- 
leum oils  under  great  heat  and  pressure,  and 
obtaining  therefrom  an  increased  supply  of  gaso- 
line, it  appears  to  be  a  modification  of  the  crack- 
ing process  only.  The  so-called  cracking  process 
during  distillation  of  petroleum  oils  as  a  means 
to  increase  the  production  of  gasoline  owes  its 
origin  to  the  fact  that  by  the  prevailing  methods 
of  too  hurried  distillation,  irregular  application 
of  heat  from  coal  fire  and  the  too  limited  con- 
ducting power  of  the  arising  vapors  to  the  con- 
densing coils,  a  certain  amount  of  back  pressure 
on  the  vapors  is  produced  which  causes  a  portion 
of  the  developed  vapors  to  be  forced  back  into 
.the  bulk  of  the  boiling  oil.  When  distillation  is 


128        FRICTION,  LUBRICATION,  OILS  AND  FATS. 

then  interrupted  and  the  heat  reduced,  the  vapors 
that  have  been  forced  back  by  the  back  pressure 
and  held  in  suspension  in  the  oil  are  again  raised 
at  their  proper  temperature  and  condensed,  to  be 
added  to  the  out-put  of  gasoline  first  obtained, 
the  whole  amount  being  in  exact  proportion  to 
the  amount  of  light  hydrocarbon  of  the  specific 
gravity  of  gasoline  naturally  contained  in  the  oil. 

The  full  amount  of  gasoline  procurable  from  a 
given  amount  of  petroleum  oil  is  obtainable  by 
distillation  with  slow  and  steady  increase  of  the 
temperature  produced  by  gas  or  fuel  oil  firing, 
and  in  a  vessel  with  wide  open  surface  connected 
with  an  overlaying  large  condenser  with  opening 
of  equal  size  of  said  vessel,  and  so  constructed 
inside  as  to  permit  of  the  rapid  and  free  access  of 
the  arising  vapors  to  condense  on  its  water-cooled 
sides  and  prevent  the  falling  back  of  any  portion 
of  them  into  the  boiling  oil. 

Destructive  distillation  in  connection  with  the 
nascent  formation  of  hydrogen  in  the  same  appa- 
ratus connected  with  the  condenser  as  above 
described,  has  been  suggested,  but  has  thus  far 
not  been  successfully  carried  out  on  a  commercial 
scale. 

Little  improvement  in  the  production  of  lubri- 
cating oils  that  has  not  long  been  known,  has 
been  recorded,  the  manufacture  of  these  oils  has 
much  increased  an4  a  great  deal  of  attention  i§ 


THE    PETROLEUM    OIL    INDUSTRY.  129 

given  to  so  control  the  distillation  as  to  retain 
paraffin  wax  in  an  amorphous  state  as  viscosity 
in  the  oil. 

Distillation  with  the  admission  of  steam  into 
the  still  naturally  increases  the  yield  of  lubricat- 
ing oil  as  thereby  the  hydrocarbons  are  not 
broken  down  by  decomposition  from  contact  with 
the  hot  iron  of  the  still. 

The  only  record  of  progress  in  the  line  of  lub- 
ricating oils  is  the  introduction  of  the  so-called 
"Valve  Oleum  Oils"  invented  and  patented  by 
the  author.  By  the  process  of  their  manufacture 
the  fatty  acids  of  the  fatty  oils  are  fixed  to  a 
metallic  base,  being  thereby  deprived  of  their 
injurious  action  on  the  metal  of  which  machinery 
is  constructed.  Readily  dissolving  in  petroleum 
oils,  they  impart  to  them  the  viscosity  necessary 
for  thorough  lubrication,  and  join  their  valuable 
lubricating  power  with  the  excellent  diffusing 
power  of  the  petroleum  lubricating  oils. 

Much  improvement  has  been  made  in  the 
production  of  paraffine  wax  whose  application  in 
the  industrial  world  has  much  increased,  and  new 
improved  machinery  displacing  the  older  methods 
in  use  has  been  advantageously  introduced. 
Impecunious  inventors  are  getting  no  encourage- 
ment to  secure  their  rights  by  United  States 
patents.  They  waste  their  time  and  energy  and 
their  limited  means  on  their  invention  an4  to, 


130       FRICTION,   LUBRICATION,   OILS  AND  FATS. 

secure  it  by  a  patent,  to  be  left  to  the  costly  course 
of  detecting  infringers  and  prosecuting  them 
through  lengthy  court  proceedings,  while  wealthy 
unscrupulous  corporations  and  piratically  in- 
clined individuals  can  through  subsidized  infor- 
mation and  at  the  cost  of  a  few  cents  per  copy 
obtain  from  the  patent  office  a  full  description  of 
the  invention. 

It  has  been  justly  said  that  the  great  corpora- 
tions and  the  individuals  who  made  their  enorm- 
ous wealth  of  the  petroleum  industry  never  devel- 
oped a  new  process  or  gave  the  trade  a  new  idea, 
as  is  done  by  individual  progressive  men. 

The  claim  to  be  able  to  change  the  character- 
istics of  the  petroleum  oils  so  as  to  produce  from 
them  aniline  oils  seems  to  be  chimerical.  With 
judicious  use  of  the  forces  of  nature  we  can 
change  water  into  ice,  we  can  harness  the  power 
of  electricity,  can  control  fire  and  water  to  our 
service,  we  can  secure  iron  from  its  ore ;  but  we 
cannot  make  iron  or  change  it  into  copper,  or 
zinc  into  gold.  We  are  only  men,  the  most  pre- 
sumptuous animals  in  the  universe;  but  we  cannot 
be  creators. 


INDEX. 


ACID  in  oil,  111,  112 
Acidity   in    mineral    oil, 

test  for,  89 
Adhesion  oil,  fluid,  for  belts, 

82,  83 

Adulteration  of  fatty  oils,  84,85 
Alkali  in  mineral  oil,  test  for, 

89 

tests,  86 

Almond  oil,  29,  30 
Alumina,  oleate  of,  preparation 

of,  72-75 

Aluminium   chloride,    use    of, 
for  desulphurizing  Ohio 
petroleum,  53,  54 
-lanolate  lubricant,  79 
Aniline  oil,  51 

oils,  from  petroleum  oils, 

130 

Automobile  oils,  68 
Axle  grease,  100 
dark,  104 
in  the  cold  way,  106, 

107 

yellow,  106 

Axles,  light,  cohesion  oil  for,  68 
rapidly    running,    heavily 
loaded,  cohesion  oil  for, 


68 


T)  AUME  degrees,  the  specific 


-L>     gravity  they  represent  and 
the  corresponding  weight 
of  the  liquids  per  gallon, 
table  of,  121-123 
hydrometer,  121,  122 
Belt  grease,  82 
oil,  81,  82 


Belts,  fluid  adhesion  oil  for,  82, 

83 
Benzine,    crude,    redistillation 

of,  55 
deodorizing  and  bleaching, 

62 

Benzol,  51 

Black  lubricating  oil,  59 
Bleaching    powder,    bleaching 

oils  with,  43 
train  oil,  45,  46 
Blotter  test,  95,  96 
Bone  grease,  19 
Bones,  lubrication  of  the  joints 
of,  4,  5 

CASTOR  oil,  24,  25 
adulteration  of,  85 
mineral,  75,  76 
white  valve-oleum, 

77 

Castoroleum,  valve  oleum,  77 
Caustic  soda,  proportions  of,  to 
grease  and  oils  for  oleate  of 
-     73 


Chloride  of  lime,  bleaching  oils 
with,  43 

Clarifying,  refining  and  bleach- 
ing oils  and  fats,  41-47 

Cleaning  train  oil,  45,  46 

Coal-tar  oil,  51 


uses  of,  51 
Cocoanut  oil,  29 
Coefficient  of  friction,  2 
Cohesion  oils,  67,  68 
Coke,  utilization  of,  61 
Cold  test,  94 
Color  test,  87,  88 

(131) 


132 


INDEX. 


Colza  oil,  28 

Compressors,  lubricants  for,  69 

Copper,  action  of  fats  and  oils 

on,  47 
Copra,  29 
Corn  oil,  30,  31 
Cosmoline,  59 

Cotton  mills,  lubricant  for  spin- 
dles in,  60 
seed  oil,  27,  28 

action      of,      on 

metal,  46 
adulteration      of, 

90,  91 
blown,  70 
in  lard    oil,   test 

for,  88 

refining  of,  42 
Cracking  process,  127,  128 
Creosote,  50,  51 
Cup  grease,  100,  104 
Cups  and  lubricators,  113-119 
feeding  with  a  wick,  116, 

117 

for  grease,  117,  118 
Cutting  compound,  38 
Cylinder  oil  from  crude  oil,  58, 

59 

steam  refined,  58 
valve  oleum,  76,  77 
oils,  compounding  of,  64, 65 
pumps    for    applying, 

113,  114 

stock,  filtered,  59 
wear  of,  108 
Cylinders,   injurious  action   of 

tallow  in,  109 
sources  of  injury  to,  110, 
111 

DEBLOCKING      petroleum 
oils,  61,  62 
Degras,  23,  24 

bleaching  of,  44,  45 
factitious,  24 

use    of,    in    compounding 
cylinder  oils,  64,  65 


Deodorizing  oil,  43,  44 

petrol  oil,  62 

train  oil,  45,  46 
Desulphurizing  Ohio  crude  oils, 

53,  54 
Dieterich's   Kafir-oil  liniment, 

61 

Distillates,  55-57 
Distillation  of  petroleum,  54-59 
Drying  oils,  13,  14 

ELAIN,  19,  20 
Engine  oil,  valve-oleum, 

76 

Essential  oils,  12 
Export  oil,  56 

FATS,  action   of  metals  on, 
46,47 
and  oils,  12-15 

of  animal  and  veg- 
etable     origin, 
16-40 
clarifying,     refining     and 

bleaching  of,  41-47 
composition  of,  71 
decomposition  of,  109 
Fatty  acids,  free,  treatment  of 

oils  containing,  43 
oil,    compounding     petro- 
leum with,  65 
oils,  13 

adulteration    of,    84, 

85,  90-92 
composition  of,  71 
decomposition  of,  109 
determination  of  min- 
eral oils  in,  87 
in  mineral  oil,  test  for, 

88 

Filtered  cylinder  stock,  59 
Fire  test,  94,  95 
Fish  oils  and  spermaceti,  20-23 
Fixed  oils,  12,  13 
Fluid  adhesion  oil  for  belts,  82, 
83 


INDEX. 


133 


Free  fatty  acids,  treatment  of 

oils  containing,  43 
Friction.  1-3 

coefficient  of,  2 
laws  of,  1-3 
motion  of,  2 
quiescence,  2 
rolling,  1,  2 
sliding,  1 
value  of,  3 
Frictional  heat,  3 

absorption    of,    by 

metal,  6 
accumulation     and 

disposal  of,  7 
creation  of,  6,  7 
Fuel  oil,  50 

/GASOLINE    engines,    lubri- 

U         cant  for,  60 

from  natural  gas,  127 
full  amount  of,  obtainable 

by  distillation,  128 
increase  in  the  production 
of,  126-128 

Germany,    receipts    for    lubri- 
cants used  in,  t>7-70 

Gingelly  oil,  27 

Glycerin,  39,  40 

Golden  machine  oil,  58 

Gravity,  specific,  120-123 

Grease  lubricants,  formulas  for, 

103-107 

inert  matter  in,  101,  102 
manufacture  of,  102-107 

Greases,  100-107 

Green  German  soap,  34 

Green  oil,  49 

HARNESS  oil,  81 
Headlight  oil,  56 
Heat,  experiments  on,  by  Rum- 
ford,  6,  7 
frictional,  3 
Hempseed  oil,  28 
Honey-drop  engine  oils,  71,  72, 
75,  76 


Horse  tallow  oil,  18,  19 

ICE  machines,  lubricants  for, 
69 
Illuminating  oils,  grades  of,  49, 

50 

Iron,  action  of  fats  and  oils  on, 
47 

OINT  water,  5 


KAFER     ointment,    carbol- 
ated,  61 

Kerosene  oil,  deodorizing  and 
bleaching,  62 

LARD,  16,  17 
oil,  17 

adulteration  of,  84,  90 
test  for  cottonseed  oil 

in.  ^8 
for  neutral  oil  in, 

88 

Laws  of  friction,  1-3 
Lead,  action  of  fats  and  oils  on, 

47 
Leather  oils,  80-83 

preserving  and  water-proof- 

ing oils  for,  81 
Lighthouse  oil,  50 
Lime    paste   for   rosin    grease, 

102,  103 
Linolein,  33 

Linoleum,  valve-oleum,  77,  78 
Linseed  oil,  32,  33 

adulteration  of,  84 
grease,  104-106 
soap,  soft,  transpar- 
ent, 35,  36 
with  a  yield 
of  450  per 
cent.,     37, 
38 

Lubricant,  aluminium  lanolate, 
79 


134 


INDEX. 


Lubricant,  mineral,  action   of, 

on  metal,  46 

Lubricants  for  ice  machine,  69 
compressors,  69 
threshing        ma 

chines,  68 
mineral  oil,  68,  69 
used  in  Germany,  receipts 

for,  67-70 

Lubricating  as  a  chemical  pro- 
cess, 5 
grease,  100 
oil,  black,  59 

oils,  improvement  in  the 
production  of,  128, 
129 

manufacture  of,  63-70 
practical  tests  of,  9C, 

97 
simple  way  of  testing, 

95,96 

with  rosin  oils,  69,  70 
petroleum  oils  for,  59-61 
Lubrication,  3-11 

inert  matter  for,  7,  8 
Lubricators  and  cups,  113-119 

MACHINERY,     lubrication 
of,  5,  6 

ordinary,  lubricant  for,  60 
Manufacture  of  lubricating  oils, 

63-70 

Marine  sperm  oil,  50 
Marrow  tallow,  19 
Metal,  absorption  of  frictional 

heat  by,  6 
Metals,  action  of  fats  and  oils 

on,  46,  47 

Mineral  castor  oils,  61,  75,  76 
gelatines,  61 
oil,  detection  of  oleate  of 

alumina  in,  98,  99 
determination  of  fatty 

oils  in,  87 
in  fatty  oils,  test  for, 

88 
lubricants,  68,  69 


Mineral  oil,  test  for  acidity  in, 

89 

alkali  in,  89 
soap  in,  88, 

89 

oils,  14,  15,  48-50 
Molasses  for  lubricating,  1 1 
Moses  pump,  114 
Motion  of  friction,  2 
Mustard  seed  oil,  32 
Mutton  fat,  18 
Myrbane  oil,  51 


of. 


NATURAL     gas, 
from,  127 
Neat's  foot  oil,  18,  19 

adulteration 

90,91 
Neutral  distillates,  56,  57 

oil  in  lard  oil,  test  for,  88 
oils,       purification        and 

bleaching  of,  57 
Nigerseed  oil,  32 
Nitro-benzol,  51 
-glycerin,  40 

OHIO  crude  oils,  53,  54 
Oil,  acid  in,  111,  112 

mixtures,   methods  of 

testing,  89-99 

Oils,  action  of  metals  on,  46, 47 
and  fats,  12-15 

of  animal  and 
vegetable  ori- 
gin, 16-40 

characteristics  of,  12 
clarifying,     refining      and 

bleaching  of,  41-47 
classes  of,  12,  13 
cohesion,  67,  68 
cold  test  for,  94 
color  test  for,  87,  88 
deodorizing  of,  43,  44 
fire  test  for,  94,  95 
illuminating,  grades  of,  49, 

50 
mineral,  48-50 


INDEX. 


135 


Oils,  simple  and  practical  meth- 
ods of  testing,  89-99 
test  for  viscosity  of,  93,  94 
testing  of,  86-99 
thickened,  70 

Oleate  of  alumina   in   mineral 
oil,      detection 
of,  98,  99 
preparation       of, 

72-75 

soda,  73,  74 
proportions  of  caus- 
tic soda  to  grease 
or  oils  for,  73 
Olive  oil,  25,  26 

action  of.  on  metal,  46 
adulteration  of,  84 

PAINT  oil,  cheap,  83 
factitious,  83 
Palm  butter,  29 
oil,  29 

grease,  106 
Paraffiue  oil,  49 

treatment  of,  57,  58 
wax,  58 

improvement    in     the 

production  of,  129 
uses  of,  61 
Peanut  oil,  31,  32 
Pennsylvania    petroleum    oils, 

52.  53 

Petrol  oil,  deodorizing  of,  62 
Petrolatum,  59 
Petroleum,    compounding    of, 

with  fatty  oils,  65 
distillation  of,  54-59,  125, 

126 

occurrence  of,  52 
oil,  origin  of,  125 

industry,    review    of, 

to  1915.  124-130 
oils,  14,  15,  52-62 

adulteration    of    fatty 

oils  with,  90-92 
deblooming  of,  61 ,  62 
for  lubricating,  59-61 


Petroleum  oils,  formation  of  new 
crude  oil  com- 
pounds from, 

127,  128 
motive      power. 

of,  126 

production       of 
aniline      oils 
from,  130 
to    give    a  vis- 
cous    consis- 
tency to,  64 
proceeds  of  distillation  of, 

55,  56,  126 
uses  of,  60,  61 
Picric  acid,  50 
Pine  tar,  39 
Plumbago,  use  of,  for  lubrica- 

tion, 7,  8 
Poppyseed  oil,  30 
Practical  suggestions,  108-112 
Prime  white  oil,  56 
Pumps   for   applying  cvlinder 
oils,  113,  114 

QUIESCENCE  of  friction,  2 


RAILWAY,  traction  on,  3 
Kapeseed  oil,  28 

action    of,    on 

metal,  46 
blown,  70 
Keceipts  for  lubricants  used  in 

Germany.  67-70 
Red  oil,  19,  20,  57 
Eesiduum  oils,  uses  of,  61 
Review  of    the   petroleum  oil 

industry  to  1915,  124-130 
Rolling  friction,  1.  2 
Rosin,  38,  39 

grease,  102,  103 

lime  paste  for.  102,  103 
oil,  38,  39 

oils,  lubricating  oils  with, 
69,  70 


136 


INDEX. 


Rosin  oils,  use  of,  in  compound- 
ing lubricating  oils,  66 
Rumford,  experiments  by,  6,  7 

SEAL  oil,  22 
Sesame  oil,  27 
Sewing  machine  oil,  69 
Shale  oil,  49 
Sight-feed  cup,  114,  115 
Signal  oil  for  lanterns,  60 
Sliding  friction,  1 
Soap,  green  German,  34 

in  mineral  oil,  test  for,  88, 

89 

soft  linseed  oil,  with  a  yield 
of  450  per  cent,  37. 

38 

receipts  for,  34-38 
transparent  linseed  oil, 

35,36 
transparent     soft,    in    the 

semi- warm  way,  36,  37 
Soda,  oleate  of,  73,  74 

proportions  of  caustic 
soda  to  grease  or  oils 

for,  73 

Soft  linseed  oil  soap  with  a 
yield  of  450  per  cent. , 
37,38 

soap,  receipts  for,  34-38 
transparent,     in     the 
semi-warm 

way.  36,  37 
linseed  oil,  35,  36 
Solid  lubricants,  100-107 
Specific  gravity,  120-123 
Sperm  oil,  21,  22 

adulteration  of,  84,  85 
Spermaceti,  20   21 

and  fish  oils,  20-23 
Spindle  oil,  57 

Spindles  in  cotton  mills,  lubri- 
cant for,  60 
Standard  white  oil,  56 
Steam-refined  cylinder  oil,  58 
Straight  run  distillate,  56 
Suggestions,  practical,  108-112 


Sunflower  oil,  26,  27 

TABLE  of  Baume'  degrees, 
the  specific  gravity 
they  represent  and  the 
corresponding  weight  of 
the  liquids  per  gallon, 
121-123 

of  proportions  of  caustic 
soda  to  grease  or  oils  for 
oleate  of  soda  in  the  man- 
ufacture of  valve-oleum 
lubricating  oils,  73 
Tallow,  17,  18 

cleaning  and  bleaching  of, 

45 

injurious  action  of,  in  cyl- 
inders, 109 
oil,  18 

action  of,  on  metal,  46 
Tanners,  oil  for  use  by,  81 
Tar  oils.  50,  51 
Test,  cold,  94 

fire,  94,  95 
Testing  lubricating  oils,  95-97 

oils,  86-99 
Tests,  practical,  of  lubricating 

oils,  96,  97 
Thickened  oils,  70 
Threshing  machines,  lubricants 

for,  68 
Tin,  action  of  fats  and  oils  on, 

47 

Traction,  3 

Train  and  whale  oils,  22,  23 
oil,     cleaning,     bleaching 
and   deodorizing  of,  45, 
46 
Transparent    linseed     oil    soft 

soap,  35,  36 
soft  soap  in  the  semi-cold 

way,  36,  37 
Turpentine,  38,  39 

V^LVE-OLEUM  castor  oil, 
white,  77 
castoroleum,  77 


INDEX. 


137 


Valve-oleum  cylinder  oil,  76,  77 
engine  oil,  76 
gelatine,  71,  72 
leather  preserving 
and     water- 
proofing      oils, 

linoleum,  77,  78 
oils,  71-78 

origin  of,  78, 

79 
Zola  axle  grease, 

103 

Vaseline,  59 
Vegetable  oils,  13 


Viscosity,  93,  94 
Volatile  oils,  12,  14 

WATER-WHITE  oil,  56 
West  Virginia  oil,  59 
Whale  and  train  oils,  22,  23 

oil,  action  of,  on  metal,  46 
Wood,  distillation  of,  50,  51 

tar  oil,  50 
Wool  fat,  23,  24 

use  of,  in  compounding 
cylinder  oils,  64,  65 

ZINC,  action  of  fats  and  oils 
on,  47 


CATALOGUE 

OF 

Practical  and  Scientific  Books 


PUBLISHED    BY 


Henry  Carey  Baird  &  Co. 

INDUSTRIAL  PUBLISHERS,   BOOKSELLERS  AND  IMPORTERS 

810  Walnut  Street,  Philadelphia. 


®=-  Any  ot  the  Books  comprised  in  this  Catalogue  will  be  sent  by  mail, 
free  of  postage,  to  any  address  in  the  world,  at  the  publication  prices. 

®=  A   Descriptive    Catalogue,  94    pages,  8vo,  will  be  sent  free  and  free 
of  postage,  to  any  one  in  any  part  of  the  world,  who  will  furnish  his 
address. 

="  Where    not    otherwise    stated,    all    of  the  Books  in  this  Catalogue 
are  bound  in  muslin. 


AMATEUR  MECHANICS'  WORKSHOP: 

A  treatise  containing  plain  and  concise  direction  for  the 
manipulation  of  Wood  and  Metals,  including  Casting,  Forg- 
ing, Brazing,  Soldering  and  Carpentry.  By  the  author  of 
the  "Lathe  and  Its  Uses."  Ninth  edition.  Illustrated. 
8vo $1.50 

ARLOT.— A  Complete  Guide  for  Coach  Painters: 

Translated  from  the  French  of  M.  ARLOT,  Coach  Painter,  for 
eleven  years  Foreman  of  Painting  to  M.  Eherler,  Coach 
Maker,  Paris  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer. 
To  which  is  added  an  Appendix,  containing  Information  re- 
specting the  Materials  and  the  Practice  of  Coach  and  Car 
Painting  and  Varnishing  in  the  United  States  and  Great 
Britain.  12mo $1.25 

1 


2        HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  GO'S.  CATALOGUE 

ARMENGAUD,  AMOROUX,  AND  JOHNSON.— The  Prac- 
tical Draughtsman's  Book  of  Industrial  Design,  and 
Machinist's  and  Engineer's  Drawing  Companion: 

Forming  a  Complete  Course  of  Mechanical  Engineering  and 
Architectural  Drawing.  From  the  French  of  M.  Armengaud 
the  elder,  Prof,  of  Design  in  the  Conservatoire  of  Arts  and 
Industry,  Paris,  and  M.  Armengaud  the  younger,  and  Amo- 
roux,  Civil  Engineers.  Rewritten  and  arranged  with  addi- 
tional matter  and  plates,  selections  from  and  examples  of 
the  most  useful  and  generally  employed  mechanism  of  the 
day.  By  WILLIAM  JOHNSON,  Assoc.  Inst.  C.  E.  Illustrated 
by  fifty  folio  steel  plates,  and  fifty  wood-cuts.  A  new  edi- 
tion, 4to.,  cloth $5.00 

ARROWSMITH.— The  Paper-Hanger's  Companion 

Comprising  Tools,  Pastes,  Preparatory  Work;  Selection  and 
Hanging  of  Wall-Papers;  Distemper  Painting  and  Cornice- 
Tinting;  Stencil  Work;  Replacing  Sash-Cord  and  Broken 
Window  Panes;  and  Useful  Wrinkles  and  Receipts.  By 
JAMES  ARROWSMITH.  A  New,  Thoroughly  Revised,  and 
Much  Enlarged  Edition.  Illustrated  by  25  engravings,  162 
pages.  (1905) $1.00 

ASHTON.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Art  of  Design- 
ing Fancy  Cotton  and  Woolen  Cloths  from  Sample: 

Giving  full  instructions  for  reducing  drafts,  as  well  as  the 
methods  of  spooling  and  making  put  harness  for  cross  drafts 
and  finding  any  required  reed;  with  calculations  and  tables 
of  yarn.  By  FREDERIC  T.  ASHTON,  Designer,  West  Pittsfield, 
Mass.  With  fifty-two  illustrations.  One  vol.  folio $4.00 

ASKINSON. — Perfumes  and  Cosmetics: 

A  Comprehensive  Treatise  on  Perfumery,  containing  Com- 
plete Directions  for  Making  Handkerchief  Perfumes,  Smelling- 
Salts,  Sachets,  Fumigating  Pastils;  Preparations  for  the  Care 
of  the  Skin,  the  Mouth,  the  Hair;  Cosmetics,  Hair  Dyes,  and 
other  Toilet  Articles.  By  G.  W.  ASKINSON.  Translated 
from  the  German.  Revised  by  W,  L.  DUDLEY.  32  illustra- 
tions. 8vo $5.00 

BAIRD. — The  American  Cotton  Spinner,  and  Manager's 
and  Carder's  Guide: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Cotton  Spinning;  giving  the  Dimen- 
sions and  Speed  of  Machinery,  Draught  and  Twist  Calcula- 
tions, etc;  with  notices  of  recent  Improvements;  together 
with  Rules  and  Examples  for  making  changes  in  the  size  and 
numbers  of  Roving  and  Yarn.  Compiled  from  the  papers 
of  the  late  ROBERT  H.  BAIRD.  256  pp.,  12mo $1.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE       3 

BEANS. — A  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and  Location  of 
Railroads: 

By  E.  W.  BEANS,  C.  E.    Illustrated.      12mo.    Morocco  $1.00 
BELL. — Carpentry  Made  Easy: 

Or,  The  Science  and  Art  of  Framing  on  a  New  and  Improved 
System.  With  Specific  Instructions  for  Building  Balloon 
Frames,  Barn  Frames,  Mill  Frames,  Warehouses,  Church 
Spires,  etc.  Comprising  also  a  System  of  Bridge  Building, 
with  Bills,  Estimates  of  Cost,  and  valuable  Tables.  Illus- 
trated by  forty-four  plates,  comprising  nearly  200  figures. 
By  WILLIAM  E.  BELL,  Architect  and  Practical  Builder. 
8vo $5.00 

BERSCH.— Cellulose,    Cellulose    Products,    and    Rubber 

Substitutes: 

Comprising  the  Preparation  of  Cellulose,  Parchment-Cellu- 
lose, Methods  of  Obtaining  Sugar,  Alcohol,  and  Oxalic  Acid 
from  Wood-Cellulose;  Production  of  Nitro-Cellulose  and  Cellu- 
lose Esters;  Manufacture  of  Artificial  Silk,  Viscose,  Celluloid, 
Rubber  Substitutes,  Oil-Rubber,  and  Faktis.  By  Dr.  JOSEPH 
BERSCH.  Translated  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  41  Illustra- 
tions. (1904) $3.00 

BILLINGS.— Tobacco : 

Its  History,  Variety,  Culture,  Manufacture,  Commerce,  and 
Various  Modes  of  Use.  By  E.  R.  BILLINGS.  Illustrated  by 
nearly  200  engravings.  8vo $3.00 

BIRD. — The  American  Practical  Dyers'  Companion: 

Comprising  a  Description  of  the  Principal  Dye-Stuffs  and 
Chemicals  used  in  Dyeing,  their  Nature  and  Uses;  Mordants 
and  How  Made;  with  the  best  American,  English,  French 
and  German  processes  for  Bleaching  and  Dyeing  Silk,  Wool, 
Cotton,  Linen.  Flannel,  Felt,  Dress  Goods,  Mixed  and 
Hosiery  Yarns,  Feathers,  Grass,  Felt,  Fur,  Wool,  and 
Straw  Hats,  Jute  Yarn,  Vegetable  Ivory,  Mats,  Skins,  Furs, 
Leather,  etc.,  etc.,  by  Wood,  Aniline,  and  other  Processes, 
together  with  Remarks  on  Finishing  Agents,  and  Instructions 
in  the  Finishing  of  Fabrics,  Substitutes  for  Indigo,  Water- 
Proofing  of  Materials,  Tests  and  Purification  of  Water. 
Manufacture  of  Aniline  and  other  New  Dye  Wares,  Harmoniz- 
ing Colors,  etc.,  etc.,;  embracing  in  all  over  800  Receipts  for 
Colors  and  Shades,  accompanied  by  170  Dyed  Samples  of  Raw 
Materials  and  Fabrics.  By  F.  J.  BIRD,  Practical  Dyer, 
Author  of  "The  Dyers'  Hand-Book. "  8vo $4.00 

BLINN. — A    Practical    Workshop    Companion    for    Tin, 
Sheet-Iron,  and  Copper-plate  Workers: 

Containing  Rules  for  describing  various  kinds  of  Patterns 


4       HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

used  by  Tin,  Sheet-Iron  and  Copper-plate  Workers;  Practical 
Geometry;  Mensuration  of  Surface  and  Solids;  Tables  of  the 
Weights  of  Metals,  Lead-pipe,  etc.;  Tables  of  Areas  and 
Circumferences  of  Circles;  Japan,  Varnishes,  Lacquers,  Ce- 
ments, Compositions,  etc.,  etc.  By  LEROY  J.  BLINN,  Master 
Mechanic.  With  One  Hundred  and  Seventy  Illustrations. 
12mo $2.50 

BOOTH.— Marble  Worker's  Manual: 

Containing  Practical  Information  respecting  Marbles  in 
general,  their  Cutting,  Working  and  Polishing;  Veneering  of 
Marble;  Mosaics;  Composition  and  Use  of  Artificial  Marble, 
Stuccos,  Cements,  Receipts,  Secrets,  etc.,  etc.  Translated 
from  the  French  by  M.  L.  BOOTH.  With  an  Appendix  con- 
cerning American  Marbles.  12mo.,  cloth  $1.50 

BRANNT. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Animal  and  Vegetable 
Fats  and  Oils: 

Comprising  both  Fixed  and  Volatile  Oils,  their  Physical  and 
Chemical  Properties  and  Uses,  the  Manner  of  Extracting  and 
Refining  them,  and  Practical  Rules  for  Testing  them;  as  well 
as  the  Manufacture  of  Artificial  Butter  and  Lubricants,  etc., 
with  lists  of  American  Patents  relating  to  the  Extraction, 
Rendering,  Refining,  Decomposing  and  Bleaching  of  Fats 
and  Oils.  By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Editor  of  the  "Techno- 
Chemical  Receipt  Book."  Second  Edition,  Revised  and 
in  great  part  Rewritten.  Illustrated  by  302  Engravings. 
In  Two  Volumes.  1304pp.  8vo $10.00 

BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  Distillation  and  Rec- 
tification of  Alcohol: 

Comprising  Raw  Materials;  Production  of  Malt,  Preparation 
of  Mashes  and  of  Yeast;  Fermentation;  Distillation  and 
Rectification  and  Purification  of  Alcohol;  Preparation  of 
Alcoholic  Liquors,  Liqueurs,  Cordials,  Bitters,  Fruit  Essences, 
Vinegar,  etc.;  Examination  of  Materials  for  the  Preparation 
of  Malt  as  well  as  of  the  Malt  itself;  Examination  of  Mashes 
before  and  after  Fermentation;  Alcoholometry,  with  Numer- 
ous Comprehensive  Tables;  and  an  Appendix  on  the  Manu- 
facture of  Compressed  Yeast  and  the  Examination  of  Alcohol 
and  Alcoholic  Liquors  for  Fusel  Oil  and  other  Impurities. 
By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Editor  of  "The  Techno-Chemical 
Receipt  Book."  Second  Edition.  Entirely  Rewritten.  Il- 
lustrated by  105  engravings.  460  pages.  8vo.  (Dec., 
1903) $10.00 

BRANNT. — India  Rubber,  Gutta-Percha  and  Balata: 

Occurrence,  Geographical  Distribution,  and  Cultivation,  Ob- 
taining and  Preparing  the  Raw  Materials,  Modes  of  Working 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE       5 

and  Utilizing  them,  including  Washing,  Maceration,  Mixing, 
Vulcanizing,  Rubber  and  Gutta-Percha  Compounds,  Utiliza- 
tion of  Waste,  etc.  By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated. 
12mo.  A  new  edition  in  preparation. 

BRANNT. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Vinegar  and  Acetates,  Cider,  and  Fruit- Wines: 

Preservation  of  Fruits  and  Vegetables  by  Canning  and  Evap- 
oration; Preparation  of  Fruit-Butters,  Jellies,  Marmalades, 
Catchups,  Pickles,  Mustards,  etc.  Edited  from  various 
sources.  By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  101  En- 
gravings. 575pp.  8vo;  3d  edition Net,  $6.00 

BRANNT.— The  Metallic  Alloys:  A  Practical  Guide: 

For  the  Manufacture  of  all  kinds  of  Alloys,  Amalgams,  and 
Solders,  used  by  Metal  Workers:  together  with  their  Chem- 
ical and  Physical  Properties  and  their  Application  in  the  Arts 
and  the  Industries;  with  an  Appendix  on  the  Coloring  of 
Alloys  and  the  Recovery  of  Waste  Metals.  By  WILLIAM 
T.  BRANNT.  45  Engravings.  Third,  Revised,  and  Enlarged 
Edition.  570  pages.  8vo Net,  $5.00 

BRANNT.— The  Metal  Worker's  Handy-Book  of  Receipts 
and  Processes: 

Being  a  Collection  of  Chemical  Formulas  and  Practical 
Manipulations  for  the  working  of  all  Metals;  including  the 
decoration  and  Beautifying  of  Articles  Manufactured  there- 
from, as  well  as  their  Preservation.  Edited  from  various 
sources.  By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated.  12mo.$2.50 

BRANNT. — Petroleum : 

Its  History,  Origin,  Occurrence,  Production,  Physical  and 
Chemical  Constitution,  Technology,  Examination  and  Uses; 
Together  with  the  Occurrence  and  Uses  of  Natural  Gas. 
Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Prof.  Hans  Hoefer  and  Dr. 
Alexander  Veith  by  Wm.  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  3 
Plates  and  284  Engravings.  743pp.  8vo $12.50 

BRANNT. — The    Practical    Dry    Cleaner,     Scourer    and 
Garment  Dyer: 

Comprising  Dry,  Chemical,  or  French  Cleaning;  Purifica- 
tion of  Benzine;  Removal  of  Stains,  or  Spotting;  Wet  Clean- 
ing; Finishing  Cleaned  Fabrics;  Cleaning  and  Dyeing  Furs, 
Skin  Rugs  and  Mats;  Cleaning  and  Dyeing  Feathers;  Clean- 
ing and  Renovating  Felt,  Straw  and  Panama  Hats;  Bleach- 
ing and  Dyeing  Straw  and  Straw  Hats;  Cleaning  and  Dyeing 
Gloves;  Garment  Dyeing;  Stripping;  Analysis  of  Textile 
Fabrics.  Edited  by  WILLIAM  T-  BRANNT,  Editor  of  "The 
Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book."  Fourth  Edition,  Revised 


6       HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

and   Enlarged.    Illustrated   by  Forty-One  Engravings.     12 

mo.    371   pp $2.50 

CONTENTS  :  I.  Dry  Chemical  or  French  Cleaning.  II.  Removal 
of  Stains  or  Spotting.  III.  Wet  Washing.  IV.  Finishing  Cleaned 
Fabrics.  V.  Cleaning  and  Dyeing  Furs,  Skin  Rugs  and  Mats.  VI. 
Cleaning  and  Dyeing  Feathers.  VII.  Cleaning  and  Renovating  Felt, 
Straw  and  Panama  Hats  ;  Bleaching  and  Dyeing  Straw  and  Straw 
Hats.  VIII.  Cleaning  and  Dyeing  Gloves.  IX.  Garment  Dyeing. 
X.  Stripping  Colors  from  Garments  and  Fabrics.  XI.  Analysis  of 
Textile  Fabrics.  Index. 

BRANNT.— The  Soap  Maker's  Hand-Book  of  Materials, 

Processes  and  Receipts  for  every  description  of  Soap;  includ- 
ing Fats,  Fat  Oils  and  Fatty  Acids;  Examination  of  Fats  and 
Oils;  Alkalies;  Testing  Soda  and  Potash;  Machines  and 
Utensils;  Hard  Soaps;  Soft  Soaps;  Textile  Soaps;  Washing 
Powders  and  Allied  Products;  Toilet  Soaps,  Medicated 
Soaps,  and  Soap  Specialties;  Essential  Oils  and  other  Perfum- 
ing Materials;  Testing  Soaps.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  Ger- 
man of  DR.  C.  DEITE,  A.  ENGELHARDT,  F.  WILTNER,  and 
numerous  other  Experts.  With  Additions  by  WILLIAM  T. 
BRANNT,  Editor  of  "The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book." 
Illustrated  by  Fifty-four  Engravings.  Second  edition,  Re- 
vised and  in  great  part  Re- Written.  535  pp.  8vo $6.00 

BRANNT.— Varnishes,  Lacquers,  Printing  Inks  and  Seal- 
ing Waxes: 

Their  Raw  Materials  and  their  Manufacture,  to  which  is 
added  the  Art  of  Varnishing  and  Lacquering,  including  the 
Preparation  of  Putties  and  of  Stains  for  Wood,  Ivory,  Bone, 
Horn,  and  Leather.  By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated 
by  39  Engravings,  338  pages.  12mo $3.00 

BRANNT- WAHL.— The  Techno-Chemical  Receipt  Book: 

Containing  several  thousand  Receipts  covering  the  latest, 
most  important,  and  most  useful  discoveries  in  Chemical 
Technology,  and  their  Practical  Application  in  the  Arts  and 
the  Industries.  Edited  chiefly  from  the  German  of  Drs. 
Winckler,  Eisner,  Heintze,  Mierzinski,  Jacobsen,  Roller  and 
Heinzerling,  with  additions  by  WM.  T.  BRANNT  and  WM.  H. 
WAHL,  Ph.  D.  Illustrated  by  78  engravings.  12mo.  495 
pages $2.00 

BROWN. — Five  Hundred   and   Seven  Mechanical  Move- 
ments : 

Embracing  all  those  which  are  most  important  in  Dynamics, 
Hydraulics,  Hydrostatics,  Pneumatics,  Steam  Engines,  Mill 
and  other  Gearing,  Presses,  Horology,  and  Miscellaneous 
Machinery;  and  including  many  movements  never  before 
published,  and  several  of  which  have  only  recently  come  into 
use.  By  HENRY  T.  BROWN $1.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE       7 

BULLOCK. — The  Rudiments  of  Architecture  and  Build- 
ing: 

For  the  use  of  Architects,  Builders,  Draughtsmen,  Machin- 
ists, Engineers  and  Mechanics.  Edited  by  JOHN  BULLOCK, 
author  of  "The  American  Cottage  Builder."  Illustrated 
by  250  Engravings.  8vo $2.50 

BYRNE. — Hand-Book   for    the   Artisan,    Mechanic,    and 
Engineer: 

Comprising  the  Grinding  and  Sharpening  of  Cutting  Tools, 
Abrasive  Processes,  Lapidary  Work,  Gem  and  Glass  En- 
graving, Varnishing  and  Lacquering,  Apparatus,  Materials 
and  Processes  for  Grinding  and  Polishing,  etc.  By  OLIVER 
BYRNE.  Illustrated  by  185  wood  engravings.  8vo $4.00 

BYRNE. — Pocket-Book  for  Railroad  and  Civil  Engineers: 

Containing  New,  Exact  and  Concise  Methods  for  Laying  out 
Railroad  Curves,  Switches,  Frog  Angles  and  Crossings;  the 
Staking  out  of  work;  Levelling;  the  Calculation  of  Cuttings; 
Embankments;  Earthwork,  etc.  By  OLIVER  BYRNE.  18mo., 
full  bound,  pocketbook  form $1.50 

BYRNE. — The  Practical  Metal- Worker's  Assistant: 

Comprising  Metallurgic  Chemistry;  the  Arts  of  Working  all 
Metals  and  Alloys;  Forging  of  Iron  and  Steel;  Hardening  and 
Tempering;  Melting  and  Mixing;  Casting  and  Founding; 
Works  in  Sheet  Metals;  the  Process  Dependent  on  the  Duc- 
tility of  the  Metals;  Soldering;  etc.  By  JOHN  PERCY.  The 
Manufacture  of  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  and  Improvements 
in  Bessemer  Steel.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer. With  over  Six  Hundred  Engravings,  Illustrating 
every  Branch  of  the  Subject.  8vo $3.50 

CABINET    MAKER'S    ALBUM    OF    FURNITURE: 

Comprising  a  Collection  of  Designs  for  various  Styles  of 
Furniture.  Illustrated  by  Forty-eight  Large  and  Beauti- 
fully Engraved  Plates.  Oblong,  8vo 

CALLINGHAM. — Sign  Writing  and  Glass  Embossing: 
A  complete  Practical  Illustrated  Manual  of  the  Art.    By 
JAMES  CALLINGHAM.    To  which  are  added  Numerous  Alpha- 
bets and  the  Art  of  Letter  Painting  Made  Easy.    By  JAMES 
C.   BADENOCH.    258  pages.    12mo $1.50 

CAREY. — A   Memoir   of   Henry   C.    Carey: 
By  DR.  WM.  ELDER.    With  a  portrait.    8vo.,  cloth 75 

CAREY.— The  Works  of  Henry  C.  Carey: 
Manual    of    Social    Science.    Condensed    from    Carey's 
"Principles  of  Social  Science."    By  KATE  McKEAN    1  vol. 
12mo $2.00 


8       HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

Miscellaneous  Works.    With  a  Portrait.  2  vols.  8vo.  $10.00 

Past,  Present  and  Future.     8vo $2.50 

Principles  of  Social  Science.     3  volumes,  8vo $10.00 

The  Slave-Trade,  Domestic  and  Foreign ;    Why  it  Exists, 

and  How  it  may  be  Extinguished  (1853).    8vo $2.00 

The  Unity  of  Law:  As  Exhibited  in  the  Relations  of  Phys- 
ical, Social,  Mental  and  Moral  Science  (1872).  8vo $2.50 

COOLEY.— A  Complete  Practical  Treatise  on  Perfumery: 

Being  a  Hand-book  of  Perfumes,  Cosmetics  and  other  Toilet 
Articles,  with  a  Comprehensive  Collection  of  Formulae.  By 
ARNOLD  COOLEY.  12mo $1.00 

COURTNEY.— The  Boiler  Maker's  Assistant  in  Drawing, 
Templating,  and  Calculating  Boiler  Work  and  Tank 
Work,  etc. 

Revised  by  D.  K.  CLARK.     102  ills.    Fifth  edition 80 

COURTNEY.— The  Boiler  Maker's  Ready  Reckoner: 

With  Examples  of  Practical  Geometry  and  Templating.  Re- 
vised by  D.  K.  CLARK,  C.  E.  37  illustrations.  Fifth  edi- 
tion  $1.60 

CRISTIANI. — A  Technical  Treatise  on  Soap  and  Candles: 

With  a  Glance  at  the  Industry  of  Fats  and  Oils.  By  R.  S 
Cristiani,  Chemist.  Author  of  "Perfumery  and  Kindred 
Arts."  Illustrated  by  176  Engravings.  581  pages,  8vo 

$15.00 

CROSS.— The  Cotton  Yarn  Spinner: 
Showing  how  the  Preparation  should  be  arranged  for  Differ- 
ent Counts  of  Yarns  by  a  System  more  uniform  than  has  hith- 
erto been  practiced;  by  having  a  Standard  Schedule  from 
which  we  make  all  our  Changes.  By  RICHARD  CROSS.  122 
pp.  12mo 75 

DAVIDSON.— A  Practical  Manual  of  House  Painting, 
Graining,  Marbling,  and  Sign-Writing: 

Containing  full  information  on  the  processes  of  House  Paint- 
ing in  Oil  and  Distemper,  the  Formation  of  Letters  and 
Practice  of  Sign- Writing,  the  Principles  of  Decorative  Art, 
a  Course  of  Elementary  Drawing  for  House  Painters,  Writers, 
etc.,  and  a  Collection  of  Useful  Receipts.  With  nine  colored 
illustrations  of  Woods  and  Marbles,  and  numerous  wood  en- 
gravings. By  ELLIS  A.  DAVIDSON.  12mo $2.00 

DA  VIES. — A  Treatise  on  Earthy  and  Other  Minerals  and 
Mining: 

By  D.  C.  DA  VIES.  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  etc.  Illustrated 
by  76  Engravings.  12mo : . ; ...  .$5.00 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE       9 

DAVIES. — A    Treatise    on    Metalliferous    Minerals    and 
Mining: 

By  D.  C.  DAVIES,  F.  G.  S.,  Mining  Engineer,  Examiner  of 
Mines,  Quarries  and  Collieries.  Illustrated  by  148  engrav- 
ings of  Geological  Formations,  Mining  Operations  and  Ma- 
chinery, drawn  from  the  practice  of  all  parts  of  the  world. 
Fifth  Edition,  thoroughly  Revised  and  much  Enlarged  by 
his  son,  E.  Henry  Davies.  12mo.  524  pages $5.00 

DAVIS. — A    Practical   Treatise   on    the   Manufacture   of 
Brick,  Tiles  and  Terra-Gotta: 

Including  Stiff  Clay,  Dry  Clay,  Hand  Made,  Pressed  or 
Front,  and  Roadway  Paving  Brick,  Enamelled  Brick,  with 
Glazes  and  Colors,  Fire  Brick  and  Blocks,  Silica  Brick,  Carbon 
Brick,  Glass  Pots,  Retorts,  Architectural  Terra-Cotta,  Sewer 
Pipe,  Drain  Tile,  Glazed  and  Unglazed  Roofing  Tile,  Art  Tile, 
Mosaics,  and  Imitation  of  Intrarsia  or  Inlaid  Surfaces.  Com- 
prising every  product  of  Clay  employed  in  Architecture,  En- 
gineering, and  the  Blast  Furnace.  With  a  Detailed  Descrip- 
tion of  the  Different  Clays  employed,  the  Most  Modern  Ma- 
chinery, Tools,  and  Kilns  used,  and  the  Processes  for  Handling 
Disintegrating,  Tempering,  and  Moulding  the  Clay  into  Shape, 
Drying,  Setting,  and  Burning.  By  CHARLES  THOMAS  DAVIS. 
Third  Edition.  Revised  and  in  great  part  rewritten.  Il- 
lustrated by  261  engravings.  662  pages (Scarce.) 

DAVIS.— The  Manufacture  of  Paper: 

Being  a  Description  of  the  various  Processes  for  the  Fabrica- 
tion, Coloring  and  Finishing  of  every  kind  of  Paper,  Includ- 
ing the  Different  Raw  Materials  and  the  Methods  for  De- 
termining their  Values,  the  Tools,  Machines  and  Practical 
Details  connected  with  an  intelligent  and  a  profitable  prose- 
cution of  the  art,  with  special  reference  to  the  best  American 
Practice.  To  which  are  added  a  History  of  Paper,  complete 
Lists  of  Paper-Making  Materials,  List  of  American  Machines, 
Tools  and  Processes  used  in  treating  the  Raw  Materials,  and 
in  Making,  Coloring  and  Finishing  Paper.  By  CHARLES  T. 
DAVIS.  Illustrated  by  156  Engravings.  608  pages.  8vo.$6.00 

DAWIDOWSKY-BRANNT.— A  Practical  Treatise  on  the 
Raw  Materials  and  Fabrication  of  Glue,  Gelatine, 
Gelatine  Veneers  and  Foils,  Isinglass,  Cements, 
Pastes,  Mucilages,  etc.: 

Based  upon  Actual  Experience.  By  F.  DAWIDOWSKY,  Tech- 
nical Chemist.  Translated  from  the  German,  with  extensive 
additions,  including  a  description  of  the  most  Recent  Ameri- 
can Processes,  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  2d  revised  edition, 
350  pages.  (1905)  Price ..$3.00 


10     HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

DEITE. — A   Practical   Treatise   on    the   Manufacture   of 
Perfumery: 

Comprising  directions  for  making  all  kinds  of  Perfumes, 
Sachet  Powders,  Fumigating  Materials,  Dentrifices,  Cos- 
metics, etc.,  with  a  full  account  of  the  Volatile  Oils,  Balsams, 
Resins,  and  other  Natural  and  Artificial  Perfume-substances, 
including  the  Manufacture  of  Fruit  Ethers,  and  tests  of  their 
purity.  By  DR.  C.  DEITE,  assisted  by  L.  BORCHERT,  F. 
EICHBAUM,  E.  KUGLER,  H.  TOEFFNER,  and  other  experts. 
From  the  German,  by  WM.  T.  BRANNT.  28  Engravings. 
358  pages.  8vo $3.00 

DE  KONINCK-DIETZ.— A  Practical  Manual  of  Chemical 
Analysis  and  Assaying: 

As  applied  to  the  Manufacture  of  Iron  from  its  Ores,  and  to 
Cast  Iron,  Wrought  Iron,  and  Steel,  as  found  in  Commerce. 
By  L.  L.  DEKONINCK,  Dr.  Sc.,  and  E.  DIETZ,  Engineer.  Ed- 
ited with  Notes,  by  ROBERT  MALLET,  F.  R.  S.,  F.  S.  G.,  M. 
I.  C.  E.,  etc.  American  Edition,  Edited  with  Notes  and  an 
Appendix  on  Iron  Ores,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and 
Engineer.  12mo $1.00 

DIETERICHS. — A    Treatise    on    Friction,     Lubrication, 

Oils  and  Fats: 

The  Manufacture  of  Lubricating  Oils,  Paint  Oils,  and  of 
Grease,  and  the  Testing  of  Oils.  By  E.  F.  DIETERICHS, 
Member  of  the  Franklin  Institute;  Member  National  Associa- 
tion of  Stationary  Engineers;  Inventor  of  Dietrichs'  Valve- 
Oleum  Lubricating  Oils.  12mo.  (1906.)  A  practical  book 
by  a  practical  man $1.25 

DUNCAN. — Practical  Surveyor's  Guide: 

Containing  the  necessary  information  to  make  any  person  o€ 
common  capacity,  a  finished  land  surveyor,  without  the  aid 
of  a  teacher.  By  ANDREW  DUNCAN.  Revised.  72  Engrav- 
ings. 214  pp.  12mo $1.50 

DUPLAIS. — A   Treatise   on    the   Manufacture   and    Dis- 
tillation of  Alcoholic  Liquors: 

Comprising  Accurate  and  Complete  Details  in  Regard  to 
Alcohol  from  Wine,  Molasses,  Beets,  Grain,  Rice,  Potatoes, 
Sorghum,  Asphodel,  Fruits,  etc.;  with  the  Distillation  and 
Rectification  of  Brandy,  Whiskey,  Rum,  Gin,  Swiss  Absinthe, 
etc.,  the  Preparation  of  Aromatic  Waters,  Volatile  Oils  or 
Essences,  Sugars,  Syrups,  Aromatic  Tinctures,  Liqueurs, 
Cordial  Wines,  Effervescing  Wines,  etc.,  the  Ageing  of  Brandy 
and  the  Improvement  of  Spirits,  with  Copious  Directions 
and  Tables  for  Testing  and  Reducing  Spirituous  Liquors,  etc., 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE      11 

etc.  Translated  and  Edited  from  the  French  of  MM.  Du- 
PLAIS.  By  M.  McKENNiE,  M.  D.  Illustrated.  743  pp. 
8vo $15.00 

EDWARDS. — A  Catechism  of  the  Marine  Steam-Engine: 
For  the  use  of  Engineers,  Firemen,  and  Mechanics.  A  Prac- 
tical Work  f9r  Practical  Men.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS,  Me- 
chanical Engineer.  Illustrated  by  sixty-three  Engravings, 
including  examples  of  the  most  modern  Engines.  Third 
edition,  thoroughly  revised,  with  much  additional  matter. 
12mo.  414  pages $1.50 

EDWARDS. — American     Marine     Engineer,     Theoretical 
and   Practical: 

With  Examples  of  the  latest  and  most  approved  American 
Practice.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS.  85  Illustrations.  12mo.  $1.50 

EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Locomotive  Engines: 

Their  Design,  Construction  and  Management.  By  EMORY 
EDWARDS.  Illustrated.  12mo $1.50 

EDWARDS. — Modern  American  Marine  Engines,  Boilers, 
and  Screw  Propellers: 

Their  Design  and  Construction.     146  pp.    4to $2.00 

EDWARDS. — 900    Examination   Questions   and   Answers: 

For  Engineers  and  Firemen  (Land  and  Marine)  who  desire 
to  obtain  a  United  States  Government  or  State  License. 
Pocket-book  form,  gilt  edge $1.50 

EDWARDS.— The  American  Steam  Engineer: 

Theoretical  and  Practical,  with  examples  of  the  latest  and 
most  approved  American  practice  in  the  design  and  con- 
struction of  Steam  Engines  and  Boilers.  For  the  use  of 
Engineers,  machinists,  boiler-makers,  and  engineering  stu- 
dents. By  EMORY  EDWARDS.  Fully  illustrated.  419  pages. 
12mo $1.50 

EDWARDS. — The  Practical  Steam  Engineer's  Guide: 

In  the  Design,  Construction,  and  Management  of  American 
Stationary,  Portable,  and  Steam  Fire-Engines,  Steam  Pumps, 
Boilers,  Injectors,  Governors,  Indicators,  Pistons  and  Rings, 
Safety  Valves  and  Steam  Gauges.  For  the  use  of  Engineers, 
Firemen,  and  Steam  Users.  By  EMORY  EDWARDS.  Illus- 
trated by  119  engravings.  420  pages.  12mo $2.00 

ELDER. — Conversations    on    the    Principal    Subjects    of 
Political  Economy: 

By  DR.  WILLIAM  ELDER.    8vo $1.50 


12      HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

ELDER. — Questions  of  the  Day: 

Economic  and  Social.    By  DR.  WILLIAM  ELDER.    8vo. .  $3.00 

ERNI  AND  BROWN.— Mineralogy  Simplified: 

Easy  Methods  of  Identifying  Minerals,  including  Ores,  by 
Means  of  the  Blow-pipe,  by  Flame  Reactions,  by  Humid 
Chemical  Analysis,  and  by  Physical  Tests.  By  HENRI 
ERNI,  A.  M.,  M.  D.  Fourth  Edition,  revised,  re-arranged 
and  with  the  additon  of  entirely  new  matter,  including  Tables 
for  the  Determination  of  Minerals  by  Chemicals  and  Pyrog- 
nostic  Characters,  and  by  Physical  Characters.  By  AMOS 
P.  BROWN,  A.  M.,  Ph.  D.  464  pp.  Illustrated  by  123  En- 
gravings, pocket-book  form,  full  flexible  morocco,  gilt  edges. 

$2.50 

FAIRBAIRN. — The  Principles  of  Mechanism  and  Machi- 
nery of  Transmission : 

Comprising  the  Principles  of  Mechanism,  Wheels,  and  Pul- 
leys, Strength  and  Proportion  of  Shafts,  Coupling  of  Shafts, 
and  Engaging  and  Disengaging  Gear.  By  SIR  WILLIAM 
FAIRBAIRN,  Bart.,  C  E.  Beautifully  illustrated  by  over  150 
wood-cuts.  In  one  volume.  12mo $2.00 

FLEMING.— Narrow  Gauge  Railways  in  America: 

A  Sketch  of  their  Rise,  Progress,  and  Success.  Valuable 
Statistics  as  to  Grades,  Curves,  Weight  of  Rail,  Locomotives, 
Cars,  etc.  By  HOWARD  FLEMING.  Illustrated.  8vo..$1.00 

FLEMMING.— Practical  Tanning: 

A  Handbook  of  Modern  Processes,  Receipts,  and  Sugges- 
tions for  the  Treatment  of  Hides,  Skins,  and  Pelts  of  Every 
Description.  By  LEWIS  A.  FLEMMING,  American  Tanner. 
630  pp.  8vo  1910 $6.00 

FORSYTH. — Book  of  Designs  for  Headstones,  Mural,  and 
other  Monuments: 

Containing  78  Designs.    By  JAMES  FORSYTH,  With  an  In- 
troduction by  CHARLES  BOUTELL,  M.  A.    4to.    Cloth.  .$3.00 
GARDNER.— Everybody's  Paint  Book: 
A  Complete  Guide  to  the  Art  of  Outdoor  and  Indoor  Paint- 
ing    38  Illustrations.     12mo.     183  pp $1.00 

GARDNER. — The  Painter's  Encyclopedia: 

Containing  Definitions  of  all  Important  Words  in  the  Art  of 
Plain  and  Artistic  Painting,  with  Details  of  Practice  in  Coach, 
Carriage,  Railway  Car,  House,  Sign,  and  Ornamental  Paint- 
ing, including  Graining,  Marbling,  Staining,  Varnishing, 
Polishing,  Lettering,  Stenciling,  Gilding,  Bronzing,  etc.  By 
FRANKLIN  B.  GARDNER.  158  illustrations.  12mo.  427  pp 

$1.50 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE      13 

GEE. — The  Goldsmith's  Handbook: 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of 
Gold,  including  the  Art  of  Alloying,  Melting,  Reducing,  Color- 
ing, Collecting,  and  Refining;  the  Processes  of  Manipulation, 
Recovery  of  Waste;  Chemical  and  Physical  Properties  of 
Gold;  with  a  New  System  of  Mixing  its  Alloys;  Solders,  En- 
amels; and  other  Useful  Rules  and  Recipes.  By  GEORGE  E. 
GEE.  12mo $1.25 

GEE. — The  Jeweler's  Assistant  in  the  Art  of  Working  in 
Gold: 

A  Practical  Treatise  for  Masters  and  Workmen.  12mo   $3.00 
GEE.— The  Silversmith's  Handbook: 

Containing  full  instructions  for  the  Alloying  and  Working  of 
Silver,  including  the  different  modes  of  Refining  and  Melting 
the  Metal;  its  Solders;  the  Preparation  of  Imitation  Alloys; 
Methods  of  Manipulation;  Prevention  of  Waste;  Instructions 
for  Improving  and  Finishing  the  Surface  of  the  Work;  together 
with  other  Useful  Information  and  Memoranda.  By  GEORGE 
E.  GEE.  Illustrated.  12mo $1.25 

GOTHIC   ALBUM    FOR   CABINET-MAKERS: 

Designs  for  Gothic  Furniture  Twenty-three  plates.  Ob- 
long  $1.00 

GRANT. — A  Handbook   on   the  Teeth  of   Gears: 
Their  Curves,  Properties,  and  Practical  Construction     By 
GEORGE  B.  GRANT     Illustrated.    Third  Edition,  enlarged. 
8vo $1.00 

GREGORY.— Mathematics  for  Practical  Men: 
Adapted  to  the  Pursuits  of  Surveyors,  Architects,  Mechan- 
ics, and  Civil  Engineers.    By  OLINTHUS  GREGORY.    8vo., 
plates .$3.00 

GRISWOLD. — Railroad    Engineer's    Pocket    Companion 

for  the  Field: 

Comprising  Rules  for  Calculating  Deflection  Distances  and 
Angles,  Tangential  Distances  and  Angles  and  all  Necessary 
Tables  for  Engineers;  also  the  Art  of  Levelling  from  Prelim- 
inary Survey  to  the  Construction  of  Railroads,  intended 
Expressly  for  the  Young  Engineer,  together  with  Numerous 
Valuable  Rules  and  Examples.  By  W.  GRISWOLD  12mo 
Pocketbook  form $1.50 

GRUNER.— Studies    of    Blast   Furnace   Phenomena: 
By  M.  L.  GRUNER,  President  of  the  General  Council  of  Mines 
of  France,  and  lately  Professor  of  Metallurgy  at  the  Ecole 
des  Mines.    Translated,  with  the  author's  sanction,  with  an 
Appendix,  by  L.  D.  B.  GORDON,  F  R.  S.  E.,  F.  G.  S.    8vo. 

$2.50 


14      HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

Hand-Book  of  Useful  Tables  for  the  Lumberman,  Farmer 
and  Mechanic: 

Containing  Accurate  Tables  of  Logs  Reduced  to  Inch  Board 
Measure,  Plank,  Scantling  and  Timber  Measure;  Wages  and 
Rent,  by  Week  or  Month;  Capacity  of  Granaries,  Bins  and 
Cisterns;  Land  Measure,  Interest  Tables  with  Directions 
for  finding  the  Interest  on  any  sum  at  4,  5,  6,  7  and  8  per 
cent.,  and  many  other  Useful  Tables.  32mo.,  boards.  186 
pages 25 

HASERIGK. — The  Secrets  of   the  Art  of   Dyeing  Wool, 
Gotton  and  Linen: 

Including  Bleaching  and  Coloring  Wool  and  Cotton  Hosiery 
and  Random  Yarns.  A  Treatise  based  on  Economy  and 
Practice  By  E.  C.  HASERICK.  Illustrated  by  323  Dyed 
Patterns  of  the  Yarns  or  Fabrics  8vo $4.50 

HATS  AND  FELTING: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  their  Manufacture.  By  a  Practical 
Hatter.  Illustrated  by  Drawings  of  Machinery,  etc.  8vo. 

$1.00 
HAUPT.— A  Manual   of   Engineering   Specifications  and 

Contracts : 

By  LEWIS  M.  HAUPT,  C.  E.  Illustrated  with  numerous 
maps.  328  pp.  8vo $2.00 

HAUPT. — The  Topographer,  His  Instruments  and  Meth- 
ods: 

By  LEWIS  M.  HAUPT,  A.  M.,  C.  E.  Illustrated  with  numer- 
ous plates,  maps  and  engravings.  247  pp.  8vo $2.00 

HAUPT.— Street  Railway  Motors: 

With  Descriptions  and  Cost  of  Plants  and  Operation  of  the 
various  systems  now  in  use.  12mo $1.50 

HULME. — Worked     Examination     Questions     in     Plane 
Geometrical   Drawing: 

For  the  Use  of  Candidates  for  the  Royal  Military  Academy, 
Woolwich;  the  Royal  Military  College,  Sandhurst;  the  In- 
dian Civil  Engineering  College,  Cooper's  Hill;  Indian  Public 
Works  and  Telegraph  Department;  Royal  Marine  Light  In- 
fantry; the  Oxford  and  Cambridge  Local  Examinations,  etc. 
By  F.  EDWARD  HULME,  F.  L.  S.,  F.  S.  A.,  Art-Master  Marl- 
borough  College.  Illustrated  by  300  examples.  Small 
quarto $1.00 

KELLEY. — Speeches,  Addresses,  and  Letters  on  Industria 
and  Financial  Questions: 

By  HON.  WILLIAM  D.  KELLEY,  M.  C.    544  pages.    8vo  $2.0  0 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE      15 

KEMLO. — Watch  Repairer's  Hand-Book: 

Being  a  Complete  Guide  to  the  Young  Beginner,  in  Taking 
Apart,  Putting  Together,  and  Thoroughly  Cleaning  the 
English  Lever  and  other  Foreign  Watches,  and  all  American 
Watches.  By  F.  KEMLO,  Practical  Watchmaker.  With 
Illustrations.  12mo $1.25 

KICK. — Flour  Manufacturer: 

A  Treatise  on  Milling  Science  and  Practice  By  FREDERICK 
KICK,  Imperial  Regierungsrath,  Professor  of  Mechanical 
•Technology  in  the  Imperial  German  Polytechnic  Institute, 
Prague.  Translated  from  the  second  enlarged  and  revised 
edition  with  supplement  by  H.  H.  P.  POWLES,  Assoc.  Memb. 
Institution  of  Civil  Engineers.  Illustrated  with  28  Plates, 
and  167  Wood-cuts.  367  pages.  8vo $7.50 

KINGZETT. — The   History,   Products,   and   Processes   of 
the  Alkali  Trade: 

Including  the  most  Recent  Improvements.  By  CHARLES 
THOMAS  KINGZETT,  Consulting  Chemist.  With  23  illustra- 
tions. 8vo $2.00 

KIRK. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Foundry  Irons: 

Comprising  Pig  Iron,  and  Fracture  Grading  of  Pig  and  Scrap 
Irons;  Scrap  Irons;  Mixing  Irons;  Elements  and  Metalloids; 
Grading  Iron  by  Analysis;  Chemical  Standards  for  Iron; 
Castings;  Testing  Cast  Iron;  Semi-Steel;  Malleable  Iron; 
Etc.,  Etc.  By  EDWARD  KIRK,  Practical  Moulder  and  Melter, 
Consulting  Expert  in  Melting.  Illustrated.  294  pages. 
8vo.  1911 $3.00 

KIRK. — The  Cupola  Furnace: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Management  of 
Foundry  Cupolas.  By  EDWARD  KIRK,  Practical  Moulder  and 
Melter,  Consulting  Expert  in  Melting.  Illustrated  by  106 
Engravings.  Third  Edition,  revised  and  enlarged.  482 
pages.  8vo.  1910 $3.50 

KOENIG. — Chemistry  Simplified: 

A  Course  of  Lectures  on  the  Non-Metals,  Based  upon  the 
Natural  Evolution  of  Chemistry.  Designed  Primarily  .for 
Engineers.  By  GEORGE  AUGUSTUS  KOENIG,  Ph.  D.,  A.  M , 
E.  M.,  Professor  of  Chemistry,  Michigan  College  of  Mines, 
Houghton.  Illustrated  by  103  Original  Drawings.  449  pp. 
12mo.  (1906) $2.25 

LANGBEIN. — A  Complete  Treatise  on  the  Electro-Deposi- 
tion of  Metals: 

Comprising  Electro-Plating  and  Galvanoplastic  Operations, 
The  Deposition  of  Metals  by  the  Contract  and  Immersion 


16     HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

Processes,  the  Coloring  of  Metals,  the  Methods  of  Grinding 
and  Polishing,  as  well  as  the  Description  of  the  Voltaic  Cells, 
Dynamo-Electric  Machines,  Thermopiles, 'and  of  the  Materi- 
als and  Processes  Used  in  Every  Department  of  the  Art. 
Translated  from  the  latest  German  Edition  of  DR.  GEORGE 
LANGBEIN,  Proprietor  of  a  Manufactory  for  Chemical  Pro- 
ducts, Machines,  Apparatus  and  Utensils  for  Electro-Platers, 
and  of  an  Electro-Plating  Establishment  in  Leipzig.  With 
Additions  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Editor  of  "The  Techno- 
Chemical  Receipt  Book."  Seventh  Edition,  Revised  and 
Enlarged.  Illustrated  by  163  Engravings.  8vo.  725  pages. 
1913 $5.00 

LARKIN. — The    Practical     Brass    and     Iron     Founder's 
Guide: 

A  Concise  Treatise  on  Brass  Founding,  Moulding,  the  Metals 
and  their  Alloys,  etc.;  to  which  are  added  Recent  Improve- 
ments in  the  Manufacture  of  Iron,  Steel  by  the  Bessemer 
Process,  etc.,  etc.  By  JAMES  LARKIN,  late  Conductor  of  the 
Brass  Foundry  Department  in  Reany,  Neafie  &  Co.'s  Penn 
Works,  Philadelphia.  New  edition,  revised,  with  extensive 
additions.  414  pages.  12mo $2.50 

LEHNER. — The  Manufacture  of  Ink: 

Comprising  the  Raw  Materials,  and  the  Preparation  of 
Writing,  Copying  and  Hektograph  Inks,  Safety  Inks,  Ink 
Extracts  and  Powders,  etc.  Translated  from  the  German 
of  SIGMUND  LEHNER,  with  additions  by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT. 
Illustrated.  12mo $2.00 

LEROUX. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of 
Worsteds  and  Carded  Yarns: 

Comprising  Practical  Mechanics,  with  Rules  and  Calcula- 
tions applied  to  Spinning;  Sorting,  Cleaning,  and  Scouring 
Wools;  the  English  and  French  Methods  of  Combing,  Draw- 
ing, and  Spinning  Worsteds,  and  Manufacturing  Carded 
Yarns.  Translated  from  the  French  of  CHARLES  LEROUX, 
Mechanical  Engineer  and  Superintendent  of  a  Spinning-Mill, 
by  HORATIO  PAINE,  M.  D.,  and  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and 
Engineer.  Illustrated  by  twelve  large  Plates.  8vo $3.00 

LESLIE. — Complete  Cookery: 

Directions  for  Cookery  in  its  Various  Branches.  By  Miss 
LESLIE.  Sixtieth  thousand.  Thoroughly  revised,  with  the 
additions  of  New  Receipts.  12mo $1.00 

LE  VAN. — The  Steam  Engine  and  the  Indicator: 

Their  Origin  and  Progressive  Development;  including  the 
Most  Recent  Examples  of  Steam  and  Gas  Motors,  together 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE      17 

with  the  Indicator,  its  Principles,  its  Utility,  and  its  Applica- 
tion. By  WILLIAM  BARNET  LE  VAN.  Illustrated  by  205 
Engravings,  chiefly  of  Indicator-Cards.  469  pp.  8vo.  $2.00 

LIEBER. — Assayer's  Guide: 

Or,  Practical  Directions  to  Assayers,  Miners,  and  Smelters, 
for  the  Tests  and  Assays,  by  Heat  and  by  Wet  Processes,  for 
the  Ores  of  all  the  principal  Metals,  of  Gold  and  Silver  Coins 
and  alloys,  and  of  Coal,  etc.  By  OSCAR  M.  LIEBER.  Re- 
vised. 283  pp.  12mo $1.50 

Lockwood's  Dictionary  of  Terms : 

Used  in  the  Practice  of  Mechanical  Engineering,  embracing 
those  Current  in  the  Drawing  Office,  Pattern  Shop,  Foundry, 
Fitting,  Turning,  Smith's  and  Boiler  Shops,  etc.,  etc.,  com- 
prising upwards  of  Six  Thousand  Definitions.  Edited  by  a 
Foreman  Pattern  Maker,  author  of  "Pattern  Making."  417 
pp.  12mo $3.75 

LUKIN.— The  Lathe  and  Its  Uses: 

Or  Instruction  in  the  Art  of  Turning  Wood  and  Metal.  In- 
cluding a  Description  of  the  Most  Modern  Appliances  for  the 
Ornamentation  of  Plane  and  Curved  Surfaces,  an  Entirely 
Novel  Form  of  Lathe  for  Eccentric  and  Rose-Engine  Turn- 
ing. A  Lathe  and  Planing  Machine  Combined;  and  Other 
Valuable  Matter  Relating  to  the  Art.  Illustrated  by  462 
engravings.  Seventh  Edition.  315  pages  8vo $4.25 

MAUCHLINE.— The  Mine  Foreman's  Hand-Book: 

Of  Practical  and.  Theoretical  Inf9rmation  on  the  Opening, 
Ventilating,  and  Working  of  Collieries.  Questions  and  An- 
swers on  Practical  and  Theoretical  Coal  Mining.  Designed 
to  Assist  Students  and  Others  in  Passing  Examinations  for 
Mine  Foremanships.  By  ROBERT  MAUCHLINE.  3d  Edition. 
Thoroughly  Revised  and  Enlarged  by  F.  ERNEST  BRACKETT. 
134  Engravings.  8vo.  378  pages.  (1905.) $3.75 

MOLESWORTH.— Pocket-Book  of  Useful  Formulae  and 
Memoranda  for  Civil  and  Mechanical  Engineers: 

By  GUILFORD  L.  MOLESWORTH,  Member  of  the  Institution  of 
Civil  Engineers,  Chief  Resident  Engineer  of  the  Ceylon 
Railway.  Full-bound  in  Pocketbook  form $1.00 

MOORE.— The    Universal    Assistant   and    the    Complete 
Mechanic: 

Containing  over  one  million  Industrial  Facts,  Calculations, 
Receipts,  Processes,  Trades  Secrets,  Rules,  Business  Forms, 
Legal  Items,  etc.,  in  every  occupation,  from  the  Household 
to  the  Manufactory.  By  R.  MOORE.  Illustrated  by  500 
Engravings.  12mo $2.50 


18      HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

NAPIER. — A  System  of  Chemistry  Applied  to  Dyeing: 

By  JAMES  NAPIER,  F.  C.  S.  A  New  and  Thoroughly  Revised 
Edition.  Completely  brought  up  to  the  present  state  of  the 
Science,  including  the  Chemistry  of  Coal  Tar  Colors,  by  A. 
A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  With  an  Appendix  on 
Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing,  as  shown  at  the  Universal  Ex- 
position, Paris,  1867.  Illustrated.  8vo.  422  pages ...  $2.00 

NICHOLLS.— The  Theoretical  and  Practical  Boiler-Maker 
and  Engineer's  Reference  Book: 

Containing  a  variety  of  Useful  Information  for  Employers 
of  Labor,  Foremen  and  Working  Boiler-Makers,  Iron,  Copper, 
and  Tinsmiths,  Draughtsmen,  Engineers,  the  General  Steam- 
using  Public,  and  for  the  Use  of  Science  Schools  and  classes 
By  SAMUEL  NICHOLLS.  Illustrated  by  sixteen  plates.  12mo. 

$2.50 

NYSTROM. — On  Technological  Education  and  the  Con- 
struction of  Ships  and  Screw  Propellers 
For  Naval  and  Marine  Engineers.  By  JOHN  W.  NYSTROM, 
late  Acting  Chief  Engineer,  U.  S.  N.  Second  Edition,  Re- 
vised, with  additional  matter.  Illustrated  by  seven  En- 
gravings. 12mo $1.00 

O'NEILL.— A  Dictionary  of  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing: 

Containing  a  brief  account  of  all  the  Substances  and  Pro- 
cesses in  use  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  and  Printing  Textile  Fabrics; 
with  Practical  Receipts  and  Scientific  Information.  By 
CHARLES  O'NEILL,  Analytical  Chemist.  To  which  is  added 
an  Essay  on  Coal  Tar  Colors  and  their  application  to  Dyeing 
and  Calico  Printing.  By  A.  A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  En- 
gineer. With  an  appendix  on  Dyeing  and  Calico  Printing, 
as  shown  at  the  Universal  Exposition,  Paris,  1867.  8vo. 
491  pages $2.00 

ORTON. — Underground  Treasures : 

How  and  Where  to  Find  Them.  A  Key  for  the  Ready  De- 
termination of  all  the  Useful  Minerals  within  the  United 
States.  By  JAMES  ORTON,  A.  M.,  Late  Professor  of  Natural 
History  in  Vassar  College,  N.  Y.;  author  of  the  "Andes  and 
the  Amazon,"  etc.  A  New  Edition,  with  An  Appendix  on 
Ore  Deposits  and  Testing  Minerals.  (1901.)  Illustrated. 

$1.50 
OSBORN.— A  Practical  Manual  of  Minerals,  Mines  and 

Mining: 

Comprising  the  Physical  Properties,  Geologic  Position;  Local 
Occurrence  and  Associations  of  the  Useful  Minerals,  their 
Methods  of  Chemical  Analysis  and  Assay;  together  with 
Various  Systems  of  Excavating  and  Timbering,  ^Brick  and 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE      19 

Masonry  Work,  during  Driving,  Lining,  Bracing  and  other 
Operations,  etc.  By  PROF.  H.  S.  OSBORN,  LL.  D.,  Author  of 
"The  Prospector's  Field-Book  and  Guide."  171  Engravings. 
Second  Edition,  Revised.  8vo $4.50 

OSBORN. — The  Prospector's  Field  Book  and  Guide: 

In  the  Search  For  and  the  Easy  Determination  of  Ores  and 
Other  Useful  Minerals.  By  PROF.  H.  S.  OSBORN,  LL.  D. 
Illustrated  by  66  Engravings.  Eighth  Edition.  Revised 
and  Enlarged.  401  pages.  12mo  (1910.) $1.50 

OVERMAN. — The  Moulder's  and  Founder's  Pocket  Guide: 

A  Treatise  on  Moulding  and  Founding  in  Green-sand,  Dry- 
sand,  Loam,  and  Cement;  the  Moulding  of  Machine  Frames, 
Mill-gear,  Hollow  Ware,  Ornaments,  Trinkets,  Bells,  and 
Statues;  Description  of  Moulds  for  Iron,  Bronze,  Brass,  and 
other  Metals;  Plaster  of  Paris,  Sulphur,  Wax,  etc.;  the  Con- 
struction of  Melting  Furnaces,  the  Melting  and  Founding  of 
Metals;  the  Composition  of  Alloys  and  their  Nature,  etc., 
etc.  By  FREDERICK  OVERMAN,  M.  E.  A  new  Edition,  to 
which  is  added  a  Supplement  on  Statuary  and  Ornamental 
Moulding,  Ordnance,  Malleable  Iron  Castings,  etc.  By  A. 
A.  FESQUET,  Chemist  and  Engineer.  Illustrated  by  44 
engravings.  12mo $2.00 

PAINTER,  GILDER,  AND  VARNISHER'S  COMPANION: 

Comprising  the  Manufacture  and  Test  of  Pigments,  the  Arts 
of  Painting,  Graining,  Marbling,  Staining,  Sign-writing, 
Varnishing,  Glass-staining,  and  Gilding  on  Glass;  together 
with  Coach  Painting  and  Varnishing,  and  the  Principles  of 
the  Harmony  and  Contrast  of  Colors.  Twenty-seventh 
Edition.  Revised,  Enlarged,  and  in  great  part  Rewritten. 
By  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT,  Editor  of  "Varnishes,  Lacquers, 
Printing  Inks  and  Sealing  Waxes."  Illustrated.  395  pp. 
12mo $1.50 

PERCY. — The  Manufacturing  of  Russian  Sheet-Iron: 
By  JOHN  PERCY,  M.  D.,  F.  R.  S.    Paper 25 

POSSELT. — Cotton  Manufacturing: 
Part  I.    Dealing  with  the  Fibre,  Ginning,  Mixing,  Picking, 
Scutching  and  Carding.    By  E.  A.  POSSELT.     104  Illustra- 
tions, 190  pp $3.00 

Part  II.    Combing,  Drawing,  Roller  Covering  and  Fly  Frame, 

$3.00 

POSSELT.— The   Jacquard   Machine   Analysed   and    Ex- 
plained: 

With  an  Appendix  on  the  Preparation  of  Jacquard  Cards,  and 
Practical  Hints  to  Learners  of  Jacquard  Designing.  By  E. 
A.  POSSELT.  With  230  Illustrations  and  numerous  diagrams. 
127  pp.  4to $3.00 


20     HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

POSSELT. — Recent  Improvements  in  Textile  Machinery 
Relating  to  Weaving: 

Giving  the  Most  Modern  Points  on  the  Construction  of  all 
Kinds  of  Looms,  Warpers,  Beamers,  Slashers,  Winders, 
Spoolers,  Reeds,  Temples,  Shuttles,  Bobbins,  Heddles,  Heddle 
Frames,  Pickers,  Jacquards,  Card  Stampers,  Etc.,  Etc.  By 
E.  A.  POSSELT.  4to.  Part  I,  600  ills.;  Part  II,. 600  ills. 
Each  part $1.50 

POSSELT. — Recent  Improvements  in  Textile  Machinery, 
Part  III: 

Processes  Required  for  Converting  Wool,  Cotton,  Silk,  from 
Fibre  to  Finished  Fabric,  Covering  both  Woven  and  Knit 
Goods;  Construction  of  the  most  Modern  Improvements  in 
Preparatory  Machinery,  Carding,  Combing,  Drawing,  and 
Spinning  Machinery,  Winding,  Warping,  Slashing  Machinery, 
Looms,  Machinery  for  Knit  Goods,  Dye  Stuffs,  Chemicals, 
Soaps,  Latest  Improved  Accessories  Relating  to  Construc- 
tion and  Equipment  of  Modern  Textile  Manufacturing  Plants 
By  E.  A.  POSSELT.  Completely  Illustrated.  4to $5.00 

POSSELT. — Technology  of  Textile  Design : 

The  Most  Complete  Treatise  on  the  Construction  and  Appli- 
cation of  Weaves  for  all  Textile  Fabrics  and  the  Analysis  of 
Cloth.  By  E.  A.  POSSELT.  1,500  Illustrations.  4to..$5.00 

POSSELT. — Textile  Calculations: 

A  Guide  to  Calculations  Relating  to  the  Manufacture  of  all 
Kinds  of  Yarns  and  Fabrics,  the  Analysis  of  Cloth,  Speed, 
Power  and  Belt  Calculations.  By  E.  A.  POSSELT.  Illus- 
trated. 4to $2.00 

REGNAULT. — Elements  of  Chemistry: 
By  M.  V.  REGNAULT.  Translated  from  the  French  by  T. 
FORREST  BETTON,  M.  D.,  and  edited,  with  Notes,  by  JAMES 
C.  BOOTH,  Melter  and  Refiner  U.  S.  Mint,  and  WILLIAM  L. 
FABER,  Metallurgist  and  Mining  Engineer.  Illustrated  by 
nearly  700  wood-engravings  Comprising  nearly  1,500  pages. 
In  two  volumes,  8vo.,  cloth $5.00 

RICH. — Artistic  Horse- Shoeing: 

A  Practical  and  Scientific  Treatise,  giving  Improved  Methods 
of  Shoeing,  with  Special  Directions  for  Shaping  Shoes  to  Cure 
Different  Diseases  of  the  Foot,  and  the  Correction  of  Faulty 
Action  in  Trotters.  By  GEORGE  E.  RICH.  362  Illustrations. 
217  pages.  12mo $2.00 

RICHARDSON.— Practical  Blacksmi  thing : 

A  Collection  of  Articles  Contributed  at  Different  Times  by 
Skilled  Workmen  to  the  columns  of  "The  Blacksmith  and 
Wheelwright,"  and  Covering  nearly  the  Whole  Range  of 
Blacksmithing,  from  the  Simplest  Job  of  Work  to  some  of  the 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE      21 

most  Complex  Forgings  Compiled  and  Edited  by  M.  T. 
RICHARDSON. 

Vol.     I.    210  Illustrations.       224  pages.     12mo $1.00 

Vol.    II.    230  Illustrations.    262  pages.     12mo $1.00 

Vol.     III.     390  Illustrations.    307  pages.     12mo $1.00 

Vol.    IV.    226  Illustrations.    276  pages.     12mo $1.00 

RICHARDSON.— Practical  Carriage  Building: 
Comprising  Numerous  Short  Practical  Articles  upon  Carriage 
and  Wagon  Woodwork;  Plans  for  Factories;  Shop  and  Bench 
Tools;  Convenient  Appliances  for  Repair  Work;  Methods  of 
Working;  Peculiarities  of  Bent  Timber;  Construction  of 
Carriage  Parts;  Repairing  Wheels;  Forms  of  Tenons  and  Mor- 
tises; Together  with  a  Variety  of  Useful  Hints  and  Sugges- 
tions to  Woodworkers.  Compiled  by  M.  T.  RICHARDSON. 

Vol.  I.  228  Illustrations.  222  pages $1.00 

Vol.     II.    283  Illustrations.    280  pages $1.00 

RICHARDSON. — The  Practical  Horseshoer: 
Being  a  Collection  of  Articles  on  Horseshoeing  in  all  its 
Branches  which  have  appeared  from  time  to  time  in  the  col- 
umns of  "The  Blacksmith  and  Wheelwright,"  etc.    Compiled 
and  edited  by  M.  T.  RICHARDSON.     174  Illustrations,  $1.00 

RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and  TOUSSAJNT.— A  Practical 
Treatise  on  the  Manufacture  of  Colors  for  Painting: 
Comprising  the  Origin,  Definition,  and  Classification  of  Colors, 
the  Treatment  of  the  Raw  Materials;  the  best  Formulae  and 
the  Newest  Processes  for  the  Preparation  of  every  description 
of  Pigment,  and  the  Necessary  Apparatus  and  Directions  for 
its  use;  Dryers;  the  Testing,  Application,  and  Qualities  of 
Paints,  etc.,  etc.  By  MM.  RIFFAULT,  VERGNAUD,  and 
TOUSSAINT,  Revised  and  Edited  by  M.  F.  MALPEYRE,  Trans- 
lated from  the  French  by  A.  A.  FESQUET.  Illustrated  by 
Eighty  Engravings.  659  pp.  8vo $5.00 

ROPER. — Catechism    for    Steam    Engineers    and    Elec- 
tricians : 

Including  the  Construction  and  Management  of  Steam  En- 
gines, Steam  Boilers  and  Electric  Plants.  By  STEPHEN 
ROPER  Twenty-first  edition,  rewritten  and  greatly  enlarged 
by  E.  R.  KELLER  and  C.  W.  PIKE.  365  pages.  Illustrations. 
18mo.,  tucks,  gilt $2.00 

ROPER. — Engineer's  Handy  Book: 
Containing  Facts,  Formulae,  Tables  and  Questions  on  Power, 
its  Generation,  Transmission  and  Measurement;  Heat,  Fuel, 
and  Steam;  The  Steam  Boiler  and  Accessories;  Steam  Engines 
and  their  Parts;  Steam  Engine  Indicator;  Gas  and  Gasoline 
Engines;  Materials;  their  Properties  and  Strength;  Together 
with  a  Discussion  of  the  Fundamental  Experiments  in  Elec- 
tricity, and  an  Explanation  of  Dynamos,  Motors,  Batteries, 
etc..  and  Rules  for  Calculating  Sizes  of  Wires.  By  STEPHEN 


22     HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

ROPER.  15th  edition.  Revised  and  Enlarged  by  E.  R. 
KELLER,  M.  E.,  and  C.  W.  PIKE,  B.  S.  With  numerous 
Illustrations.  Pocket-book  form.  Leather $3.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Land  and  Marine  Engines: 
Including  the  Modeling,  Construction,  Running,  and  Man- 
agement of  Land  and  Marine  Engines  and  Boilers.     With 
Illustrations.    By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.    Sixth  Edition. 
12mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $3.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  the  Locomotive: 

Including  the  Construction  of  Engines  and  Boilers,  and  the 
Construction,  Management,  and  Running  of  Locomotives. 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER.  Eleventh  Edition.  18mo.,  tucks,  gilt 
edge $2.50 

ROPER. — Hand-Book  of  Modern  Steam  Fire-Engines; 
With  Illustrations.  By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Fourth 
Edition,  12mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $3.50 

ROPER. — Instructions  and  Suggestions  for  Engineers  and 

Firemen: 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.     18mo.,  Morocco $2.00 

ROPER. — Questions    and    Answers    for    Stationary    and 

Marine  Engineers  and  Electricians: 
With  a  Chapter  of  What  to  Do  in  Case  of  Accidents.  By 
STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  Sixth  Edition,  Rewritten  and 
Greatly  Enlarged  by  EDWIN  R.  KELLER,  M.  E.,  and  CLAYTON 
W.  PIKE,  B.  A.  306  pp.  Morocco,  pocketbook  form,  gilt 
edges .$2.00 

ROPER.— The  Steam  Boiler:  Its  Care  and  Management: 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.  12mo.,  tuck,  gilt  edges.  $2.00 

ROPER.— Use  and  Abuse  of  the  Steam  Boiler: 
By  STEPHEN  ROPER,  Engineer.    Ninth  Edition,  with  Illus- 
trations.    18mo.,  tucks,  gilt  edge $2.00 

ROPER.— The  Young  Engineer's  Own  Book: 
Containing  an  Explanation  of  the  Principle  and  Theories  on 
which  the  Steam  Engine  as  a  Prime  Mover  is  based.    By 
STEPHEN   ROPER,   Engineer.     160   Illustrations,   363   pages. 
18mo.,  tuck $2.50 

ROSE. — The  Complete  Practical  Machinist: 
Embracing  Lathe  Work,  Vise  Work,  Drills  and  Drilling,  Taps 
and  Dies,  Hardening  and  Tempering,  the  Making  and  Use  of 
Tools,  Tool  Grinding,  Marking  out  work,  Machine  Tools,  etc. 
By  JOSHUA  ROSE.  395  Engravings.  Nineteenth  Edition, 
greatly  Enlarged  with  New  and  Valuable  Matter.  12mo., 
504  pages $2.50 

ROSE.— Mechanical  Drawing  Self -Taught: 
Comprising  Instructions  in  the  Selection  and  Preparation  of 
Drawing  Instruments,  Elementary  Instruction  in  practical 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE      23 

Mechanical  Drawing,  together  with  Examples  in  Simple 
Geometry  and  Elementary  Mechanism,  including  Screw 
Threads,  Gear  Wheels,  Mechanical  Motions,  Engines  and 
Boilers.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  330  En- 
gravings. 8vo.  313  pages $3.50 

ROSE.— The  Slide- Valve  Practically  Explained: 

Embracing  simple  and  complete  Practical  Demonstrations  of 
the  operation  of  each  element  in  a  Slide-valve  Movement, 
and  illustrating  the  effects  of  Variations  in  their  Proportions 
by  examples  carefully  selected  from  the  most  recent  and 
successful  practice.  By  JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated 
by  35  Engravings $1.00 

ROSE. — Steam  Boilers: 

A  Practical  Treatise  on  Boiler  Construction  and  Examination, 
for  the  Use  of  Practical  Boiler  Makers,  Boiler  Users,  and  In- 
spectors; and  embracing  in  plain  figures  all  the  calculations 
necessary  in  Designing  or  Classifying  Steam  Boilers.  By 
JOSHUA  ROSE,  M.  E.  Illustrated  by  73  Engravings.  250 
pages.  8vo $2.00 

ROSS. — The    Blowpipe    in    Chemistry,    Mineralogy    and 
Geology: 

Containing  all  Known  Methods  of  Anhydrous  Analysis,  many 
Working  Examples,  and  Instructions  for  Making  Apparatus. 
By  LIEUT  COLONEL  W  A.  Ross,  R.  A.,  F.  G.  S.  With  120 
Illustrations.  12mo $2.00 

SCHRIBER. — The  Complete  Carriage  and  Wagon  Painter: 

A  Concise  Compendium  of  the  Art  of  Painting  Carriages, 
Wagons,  and  Sleighs,  embracing  Full  Directions  in  all  the 
Various  Branches,  including  Lettering,  Scrolling,  Ornament- 
ing, Striping,  Varnishing,  and  Coloring,  with  numerous  Re- 
cipes for  Mixing  Colors.  73  Illustrations.  177  pp.  12mo. 

$1.00 

SHAW. — Civil  Architecture: 

Being  a  Complete  Theoretical  and  Practical  System  of  Build- 
ing, containing  the  Fundamental  Principles  of  the  Art.  By 
EDWARD  SHAW,  Architect.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on 
Gothic  Architecture,  etc.  By  THOMAS  W.  SILLOWAY  and 
GEORGE  M.  HARDING,  Architects.  The  whole  illustrated  by 
102  quarto  plates  finely  engraved  on  copper.  Eleventh  Edi- 
tion 4to $5.00 

SHERRATT.— The  Elements  of  Hand-Railing: 

Simplified  and  Explained  in  Concise  Problems  that  are  Easily 
Understood.  The  whole  illustrated  with  Thirty-eight  Ac- 
curate and  Original  Plates,  Founded  on  Geometrical  Principles, 
and  showing  how  to  Make  Rail  Without  Centre  Joints,  Mak- 
ing Better  Rail  of  the  Same  Material,  with  Half  the  Labor, 


24      HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

and  Showing  How  to  Lay  Out  Stairs  of  all  Kinds.  By  R.  J. 
SHERRATT.  Folio $2.50 

SHUNK. — A  Practical  Treatise  on  Railway  Curves  and 
Location  for  Young  Engineers: 

By  W.  F.  SHUNK,  C.  E.  12mo.  Full  bound  pocket-book 
form $2.00 

SLOANE. — Home  Experiments  in  Science: 
By  T.  O'CoN9R  SLOANE,  E.  M..  A  M.,  Ph.  D.    Illustrated 
by  91  Engravings.     12mo $1.00 

SLOAN. — Homestead  Architecture: 
Containing  Forty  Designs  for  Villas,  Cottages,  and  Farm- 
houses, with  Essays  on  Style,  Construction,  Landscape  Gar- 
dening, Furniture,  etc.,  etc.     Illustrated  by  upwards  of  200 
Engravings.    By  SAMUEL  SLOAN,  Architect.    8vo $2.00 

SMITH.— The  Dyer's  Instructor: 

Comprising  Practical  Instructions  in  the  Art  of  Dyeing  Silk, 
Cotton,  Wool,  and  Worsted,  and  Woolen  Goods;  containing 
nearly  800  Receipts.  To  which  is  added  a  Treatise  on  the 
Art  of  Padding;  and  the  Printing  of  Silk  Warps,  Skeins,  and 
Handkerchiefs,  and  the  various  Mordants  and  Colors  for  the 
different  styles  of  such  work.  By  DAVID  SMITH,  Pattern 
Dyer.  12mo $1.00 

SMITH. — A  Manual  of  Political  Economy: 
By  E.  PESHINE  SMITH.    A  New  Edition,  to  which  is  added 
a  full  Index.     12mo. $1.25 

SMITH.— Parks  and  Pleasure- Grounds: 
Or  Practical  Notes  on  Country  Residences,  Villas,  Public 
Parks,  and  Gardens.    By  CHARLES  H.  J.  SMITH,  Landscape 
Gardener  and  Garden  Architect,  etc.,  etc.     12mo $2.00 

SNIVELY. — The    Elements     of     Systematic     Qualitative 

Chemical  Analysis: 

A  Hand-book  for  Beginners.  By  JOHN  H.  SNIVELY,  Phr.  D. 
16mo $2.00 

STOKES. — The  Cabinet  Maker  and  Upholsterer's  Com- 
panion : 

Comprising  the  Art  of  Drawing,  as  applicable  to  Cabinet 
Work;  Veneering,  Inlaying,  and  Buhl- Work;  the  Art  of  Dye- 
ing and  Staining  Wood,  Ivory,  Bone,  Tortoise-Shell,  etc. 
Directions  for  Lacquering,  Japanning,  and  Varnishing;  to 
make  French  Polish,  Glues,  Cements,  -and  Compositions; 
with  numerous  Receipts,  useful  to  workmen  generally.  By 
J.  STOKES.  Illustrated.  A  New  Edition,  with  an  Appendix 
upon  French  Polishing,  Staining,  Imitating,  Varnishing,  etc., 
etc.  12mo $1.25 

STRENGTH  AND   OTHER   PROPERTIES   OF    METALS: 
Reports  of  Experiments  on  the  Strength  and  other  Properties 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE      25 

of  Metals  for  Cannon  With  a  Description  of  the  Machines 
for  Testing  Metals,  and  of  the  Classification  of  Cannon  in 
service.  By  Officers  of  the  Ordnance  Department,  U.  S. 
Army.  By  authority  of  the  Secretary  of  War.  Illustrated 
by  25  large  steel  plates.  Quarto $3.00 

SULZ. — A  Treatise  on  Beverages: 

Or  the  Complete  Practical  Bottler.  Full  Instructions  for 
Laboratory  Work  with  Original  Practical  Recipes  for  all 
kinds  of  Carbonated  Drinks.  Mineral  Waters,  Flavoring 
Extracts,  Syrups,  etc.  By  CHARLES  HERMAN  SULZ,  Tech- 
nical Chemist  and  Practical  Bottler.  Illustrated  by  428 

Engravings.    818  pp.    8vo $7.50 

SYME.— Outlines  of  an  Industrial  Science: 
By  DAVID  SYME.     12mo $2.00 

TABLES  SHOWING  THE  WEIGHT  OF  ROUND,  SQUARE 
AND  FLAT  BAR  IRON,  STEEL,  ETC. 

By  Measurement.    Cloth 63 

TEMPLETON. — The  Practical  Examinator  on  Steam  and 
the  Steam-Engine: 

With  Instructive  References  relative  thereto,  arranged  for 
the  Use  of  Engineers,  Students,  and  others.  By  WILLIAM 

TEMPLETON,  Engineer     12mo $1.00 

THALLNER.— Tool-Steel : 

A  Concise  Hand-book  on  Tool-Steel  in  General.  Its  Treat- 
ment in  the  Operations  of  Forging,  Annealing,  Hardening, 
Tempering,  etc.,  and  the  Appliances  Therefor.  By  OTTO 
THALLNER,  Manager  in  Chief  of  the  Tool-Steel  Works,  Bis- 
marckhutte,  Germany.  From  the  German  by  WILLIAM  T. 
BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  69  Engravings.  194  pages  8vo. 
1902 . .  .$2.00 

THAUSING.— The  Theory  and  Practice  of  the  Preparation 
of  Malt  and  the  Fabrication  of  Beer: 

With  especial  reference  to  the  Vienna  Process  of  Brewing. 
Elaborated  from  personal  experience  by  JULIUS  E.  THAUSING, 
Professor  at  the  School  for  Brewers,  and  at  the  Agricultural 
Institute,  Modling,  near  Vienna.  Translated  from  the  Ger- 
man by  WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT.  Thoroughly  and  elaborately 
edited,  with  much  American  matter,  and  according  to  the 
latest  and  most  Scientific  Practice,  by  A.  SCHWARZ  and  DR. 
A.  H.  BAUER.  Illustrated  by  140  Engravings.  8vo.  815 

pages $10.00 

TOMPKINS.— Cotton  and  Cotton  Oil: 
Cotton:    Planting,  Cultivating,  Harvesting  and  Preparation 
for  Market.     Cotton  Seed  Oil  Mills:    Organization,  Construc- 
tion and  Operation.    Cattle  Feeding:    Production  of  Beef 
and  Dairy  Products,  Cotton  Seed  Meal  and  Hulls  as  Stock 


26     HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

Feed.  Fertilizers:  Manufacture,  Manipulation  and  Uses. 
By  D.  A.  TOMPKINS.  8vo.  494  pp  Illustrated $7.50 

TOMPKINS. — Cotton  Mill,  Commercial  Features: 

A  Text-Book  for  the  Use  of  Textile  Schools  and  Investors. 
With  Tables  showing  Cost  of  Machinery  and  Equipments 
for  Mills  making  Cotton  Yarns  and  Plain  Cotton  Cloths.  By 
D.  A.  TOMPKINS.  8vo.  240  pp.  Illustrated $5.00 

TOMPKINS.— Cotton  Mill  Processes  and  Calculations: 

An  Elementary  Text-Book  for  the  Use  of  Textile  Schools  and 
for  Home  Study.  By  D.  A  TOMPKINS.  312  pp.  8vo. 
Illustrated $5.00 

TURNER'S  (THE)  COMPANION: 

Containing  Instructions  in  Concentric,  Elliptic,  and  Eccen- 
tric Turning;  also  various  Plates  9f  Chucks,  Tools,  and  In- 
struments; and  Directions  for  using  the  Eccentric  Cutter, 
Drill,  Vertical  Cutter,  and  Circular  Rest;  with  Patterns  and 
Instructions  for  working  them.  12mo $1.00 

VAN  CLEVE.— The  English  and  American  Mechanic: 
Comprising  a  Collection  of  Over  Three  Thousand  Receipts, 
Rules,  and  Tables,  designed  for  the  Use  of  every  Mechanic 
and  Manufacturer.    By  B.  FRANK  VAN  CLEVE.    Illustrated. 
500  pp.     12mo $2.00 

VAN  DER  BURG. — School  of  Painting  for  the  Imitation 

of  Woods  and  Marbles: 

A  Complete,  Practical  Treatise  on  the  Art  and  Craft  of  Grain- 
ing and  Marbling  with  the  Tools  and  Appliances.  36  Plates. 
Folio,  12x20  inches : $6.00 

VILLE. — The  School  of  Chemical  Manures: 
Or,  Elementary  Principles  in  the  Use  of  Fertilizing  Agents 
From  the  French  of  M.  GEO.  VILLE,  by  A.  A.  FESQUET, 
Chemist  and  Engineer.    With  Illustrations.     12mo $1.25 

VOGDES. — The  Architect's   and   Builder's:  Pocket-Com- 
panion and  Price- Book: 

Consisting  of  a  Short  but  Comprehensive  Epitome  of  Deci- 
mals, Duodecimals,  Geometry  and  Mensuration;  with  Tables 
of  United  States  Measures,  Sizes,  Weights,  Strength,  etc.,  of 
Iron,  Wood,  Stone,  Brick,  Cement  and  Concretes,  Quanti- 
ties of  Materials  in  given  Sizes  and  Dimensions  of  Wood, 
Brick  and  Stone;  and  full  and  complete  Bills  of  Prices  for 
Carpenter's  Work  and  Painting;  also,  Rules  for  Computing 
and  Valuing  Brick  and  Brick  Work,  Stone  Work,  Painting, 
Plastering,  with  a  Vocabulary  of  Technical  Terms,  etc.  By 
FRANK  W.  VOGDES,  Architect,  Indianapolis,  Ind.  Enlarged, 
Revised  and  Corrected.  In  one  volume  368  pages,  full- 
bound,  pocketbook  form,  gilt  edges $2.00 

Cloth..  $1.5Q 


HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE      27 

WAHNSGHAFFE.— A  Guide  to   the  Scientific  Examina- 
tion of  Soils: 

Comprising  Select  Methods  of  Mechanical  and  Chemical 
Analysis  and  Physical  Investigation.  Translated  from  the 
German  of  DR  F.  WAHNSCHAFFE.  With  additions  by  WIL- 
LIAM T.  BRANNT.  Illustrated  by  25  Engravings.  12mo. 
177  pages $1.50 

WARE. — The  Sugar  Beet: 

Including  a  History  of  the  Beet  Sugar  Industry  in  Europe, 
Varieties  of  the  Sugar  Beet,  Examinatioi,  Soils,  Tillage 
Seeds  and  Sowing,  Yield  and  Cost  of  Cultivation,  Harvest- 
ing, Transportation,  Conservation,  Feeding  Qualities  of  the 
Beet  and  of  the  Pulp,  etc.  By  LEWIS  S.  WARE,  C.  E., 
M.  E.  Illustrated  by  ninety  Engravings.  8vo $2.00 

WARN. — The  Sheet-Metal  Worker's  Instructor: 
For  Zinc,  Sheet-Iron,  Copper,  and  Tin-Plate  Workers,  etc. 
Containing  a  selection  of  Geometrical  Problems;  also  Prac- 
tical and  Simple  Rules  for  Describing  the  various  Patterns 
required  in  the  different  branches  of  the  above  Trades.  By 
REUBEN  H.  WARN,  Practical  Tin-Plate  Worker.  To  which  is 
added  an  Appendix,  containing  Instructions  for  Boiler-Mak- 
ing, Mensuration  of  Surfaces  and  Solids,  Rules  for  Calculat- 
ing the  Weights  of  different  Figures  of  Iron  and  Steel,  Tables 
of  the  Weights  of  Iroi,  Steel,  etc.  Illustrated  by  thirty- 
two  Plates  and  thirty-seven  Wood  Engravings.  8vo. . .  $2.00 

WARNER.— New  Theorems,   Tables,   and  Diagrams,   for 

the  Computation  of  Earth- work: 

Designed  for  the  use  of  Engineers  in  Preliminary  and  Final 
Estimates,  of  Students  in  Engineering  and  of  Contractors 
and  other  non-professional  Computers.  In  two  parts,  with 
an  Appendix.  Part  I.  A  Practical  Treatise;  Part  II.  A 
Theoretical  Treatise,  and  the  Appendix  Contaiiing  Notes  to 
the  Rules  and  Examples  of  Part  I.;  Explanations  of  the  Con- 
struction of  Scales,  Tables,  and  Diagrams,  and  a  Treatise 
upon  Equivalent  Square  Bases  and  Equivalent  Level  Heights. 
By  JOHN  WARNER,  A.  M.,  Mining  and  Mechanical  Engineer. 
Illustrated  by  14  Plates.  8vo $3.00 

WATSON  —A  Manual  of  the  Hand-Lathe: 
Comprising  Concise  Directions  for  Working  Metals  of  all 
kinds,  Ivory,  Bone  and  Precious  Woods;  Dyeing,  Coloring, 
and  French  Polishing;  Inlaying  by  Veneers,  and  various 
methods  practised  to  produce  Elaborate  work  with  dispatch, 
and  at  Small  Expense.  By  EGBERT  P.  WATSON,  Author  of 
"The  Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists  and  En- 
gineers. "  Illustrated  by  78  Engravings $1.00 

WATSON.— The  Modern  Practice  of  American  Machinists 

and  Engineers: 
Including  the  Construction,  Application,  and  Use  of  Drills, 


28      HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO.'S  CATALOGUE 

Lathe  Tools,  Cutters  for  Boring  Cylinders,  and  Hollow-work 
generally,  with  the  most  economical  Speed  for  the  same;  the 
Results  verified  by  Actual  Practice  at  the  Lathe,  the  Vise, 
and  on  the  floor.  Together  with  Workshop  Management, 
Economy  of  Manufacture,  the  Steam  Engine,  Boilers,  Gears, 
Belting,  etc.,  etc.  By  EGBERT  P.  WATSON  Illustrated  by 
eighty-six  Engravings.  12mo $2.00 

WEATHERLY. — Treatise  on  the  Art  of  Boiling  Sugar, 
Crystallizing,  Lozenge-making,  Comfits,  Gum  Goods: 
And  other  processes  for  Confectionery,  including  Methods 
for  Manufacturing  every  Description  of  Raw  and  Refined 
Sugar  Goods.  A  New  and  Enlarged  Edition,  with  an  Appen- 
dix on  Cocoa,  Chocolate,  Chocolate  Confections,  etc.  196 
pages.  12mo $1.50 

WILL.— Tables  of  Qualitative  Chemical  Analysis: 
With  an  Introductory  Chapter  on  the  Course  of  Analysis 
By  PROFESSOR  HEINRICH  WILL,  of  Giessen,  Germany.  Third 
American,  from  the  eleventh  German  Edition.  Edited  by 
CHARLES  F.  HIMES,  Ph.  D ,  Professor  of  Natural  Science, 
Dickinson  College,  Carlisle,  Pa.  8vo $1.00 

WILLIAMS.— On  Heat  and  Steam: 
Embracing  New  Views  of  Vaporization,  Condensation  and 
Explosion.    By  CHARLES  WYE  WILLIAMS,  A.  I.  C.  E.    Illus- 
trated.   8vo $2.00 

WILSON.— The  Practical  Tool-Maker  and  Designer: 
A  Treatise  upon  the  Designing  of  Tools  and  Fixtures  for 
Machine  Tools  and  Metal  Working  Machinery,  Comprising 
Modern  Examples  of  Machines  with  Fundamental  Designs 
for  Tools  for  the  Actual  Production  of  the  work;  Together 
with  Special  Reference  to  a  Set  of  Tools  for  Machining  the 
Various  Parts  of  a  Bicycle.  Illustrated  by  189  Engravings 
(1898) $2.50 

CONTENTS  :  Introductory.  Chapter  I.  Modern  Tool  Room  and 
Equipment.  II.  Files,  Their  Use  and  Abuse.  III.  Steel  and  Tem- 
pering. IV.  Making  Jigs.  V.  Milling  Machine  Fixtures.  VI.  Tools 
and  Fixtures  for  Screw  Machines.  VII.  Broaching.  VIII.  Punches 
and  Dies  for  Cutting  and  Drop  Press.  IX.  Tools  for  Hollow-ware. 

X.  Embossing :  Metal,   Coin  and  Stamped  Sheet-Metal  Ornaments. 

XI.  Drop  Forging.     XII.  Solid  Drawn  Shells  or  Ferrules  ;  Cupping 
or  Cutting  and  Drawing;  Breaking  Down  Shells.     XIII.  Annealing, 
Pickling  and  Cleaning.     XIV.  Tools  for  Draw  Bench.     XV.  Cutting 
and  Assembling  Pieces  by  Means  of  Ratchet  Dial   Plates  at  One 
Operation.     XVI.  The  Header.     XVII.  Tools  for  Fox  Lathe.   XVIII. 
Suggestions  for  a  set  of  Tools  for  Machining  the  Various  Parts  of 
a  Bicycle.     XIX.  The  Plater's  Dynamo.     XX.  Conclusion — With  a 
few  Random  Ideas.     Appendix.     Index. 

WORSSAM.— On  Mechanical  Saws: 

From  the  Transaction  of  the  Society  of  Engineers,  1869.  By 
S.  W.  WORSSAM,  JR.  Illustrated  by  Eighteen  large  Plates. 
8vo...  ...$1.50 


BRANNTS  "SOAP  MAKER'S  HAND  BOOK.' 


The  most  helpful  and  up-to-date  book  on  the  Art  of  Soap 
Making  in  the  English  language. 

In  one  volume,  8vo9  535  pages9  illustrated  by  54:  engravings* 
Price  $6.OO  net9  Free  of  Postage  to  any  Address  in  the  World, 
or  by  Express  C.  O.  J>.  freight  paid  to  any  Address  in  the 
United  States  or  Canada. 


PUBLISHED   APRIL,  1912. 


THE 

SOAP  MAKER'S  HAND  BOOK 

OF 

MATERIALS,  PROCESSES  AND  RECEIPTS  FOR 
EVERY  DESCRIPTION  OF  SOAP 

INCLUDING 

FATS,  FAT  OILS,  AND  FATTY  ACIDS ;   EXAMINATION  OF  FATS  AND  OILS  J 

ALKALIES  ;  TESTING  SODA  AND  POTASH  ;   MACHINES  AND  UTENSILS  J 

HARD  SOAPS  ;  SOFT  SOAPS  ;  TEXTILE  SOAPS  ;  WASHING  POWDERS 

AND  ALLIED  PRODUCTS  ;   TOILET  SOAPS,  MEDICATED  SOAPS, 

AND  SOAP  SPECIALTIES  ;   ESSENTIAL  OILS  AND  OTHER 

PERFUMING  MATERIALS  ;   TESTING  SOAPS. 

EDITED   CHIEFLY   FROM   THE   GERMAN   OF 
DR.  C.  DEITE,     A.  ENGELHARDT,     F.  WILTNER, 

AND  NUMEROUS  OTHER  EXPERTS. 

WITH  ADDITIONS 
BY 

WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 

EDITOR  OF  "THE  TECHNO  CHEMICAL  RECEIPT  BOOK.'* 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  FIFTY-FOUR  ENGRAVINGS. 
SECOND  EDITION.  REVISED  AND  IN  GREAT  PART  RE-WRITTEN. 


KIRK'S   CUPOLA   FURNACE. 


An  Eminently 9  Practical)  Up-to-Date  Book,  by  an  Expert. 

Third  Thoroughly  Revised  and  Partly  Re-written  Edition. 
In  one  volume,  8vo.9  482  pages,  illustrated  by  one  hundred 
and  six  engravings.  Price  $3.5O.  Free  of  Postage  to  any 
Address  in  the  World,  or  by  Express  C.  O.  D.f  freight  paid  to 
any  Address  in  the  United  States  or  Canada. 


PUBLISHED  AUGUST,  1910. 


THE    CUPOLA    FURNACE 

A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE  ON  THE 

CONSTRUCTION  AND  MANAGEMENT 

OF 

FOUNDRY  CUPOLAS: 

COMPRISING 

IMPROVEMENTS  IN  CUPOLAS  AND  METHODS  OF  THEIR  CONSTRUCTION  AND  MANAGE* 

MENT;  TUYERES;  MODERN  CUPOLAS;  CUPOLA  FUELS;  FLUXING  OF  IRON;  GETTING 

UP  CUPOLA  STOCK;  RUNNING  A  CONTINUOUS  STREAM;  SCIENTIFICALLY 

DESIGNED   CUPOLAS;  SPARK-CATCHING  DEVICES;    BLAST-PIPES  AND 

BLAST;  BLOWERS;  FOUNDRY  TRAM  RAIL,  ETC.,  ETC. 

BY 

EDWARD   KIRK, 

PRACTICAL  MOULDER  AND   MELTER,  CONSULTING   EXPERT  IN   MELTING. 

Author  of  "  The  Founding  of  Metals"  and  of  Numerous  Papers  on  Cupola  Practice, 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  ONE  HUNDRED  AND  SIX  ENGRAVINGS. 

THIRD  THOROUGHLY  REVISED  AND  PARTLY  RE-WR.TTEN   EDITION. 


KIRK'S   FOUNDRY   IRONS. 


A  Practical,  Up~to-Date  Book,  by  the  well  known  Expert. 

In  one  volume,  8vo,  294  pages,  illustrated.  Price  $3.OO  net. 
free  of  Postage  to  any  Address  in  the  World,  or  by  Express 
C.  O.  JO.,  freight  paid  to  any  Address  in  the  United  States  or 
Canada. 

PUBLISHED  JUNE,   1911. 


•  A  PRACTICAL  TREATISE 

ON 

FOUNDRY    IRONS 

COMPRISING 

PIG   IRON,  AND   FRACTURE  GRADING   OF   PIG  AND   SCRAP   IRONS  ; 
SCRAP  IRONS  ;    MIXING  IRONS  ;    ELEMENTS  AND  METALLOIDS  ; 
GRADING   IRON   BY   ANALYSIS  J    CHEMICAL   STANDARDS 
FOR  IRON  CASTINGS  ;    TESTING  CAST  IRON  ;    SEMI- 
STEEL  ;    MALLEABLE   IRON  ;    ETC.,  ETC. 


BY 

EDWARD   KIRK, 

PRACTICAL  MOULDER  AND  MELTER;  CONSULTING  EXPERT  IN  MELTING. 

AUTHOR  OF  "THK  CUPOLA  FURNACE,"  AND  OF  NUMEROUS 

PAPERS  ON  CUPOLA  PRACTICE. 


ILLUSTRATED 


BRANNT'S  DRY  CLEANER. 


The  only  book  including  Hat  Cleaning  and  Reno- 
vating in  any  language,  in  one  volume,  12mo,  371 
pages,  illustrated.  Price  $2. 5O  net.  JFree  of  postage 
to  any  address  in  the  world,  or  by  express  freight 
paid  to  any  address  in  the  United  States  or  Canada. 

PUBLISHED  OCTOBER,  1911. 

THE  PRACTICAL 

DRY  CLEANER,  SCOURER,  AND 
GARMENT  DYER: 

COMPRISING 

DRY,  CHEMICAL,  OR  FRENCH  CLEANING;  PURIFICATION  OF  BENZINE; 

REMOVAL  OF  STAINS,  OR  SPOTTING;  WET  CLEANING;  FINISHING 

CLEANED  FABRICS;  CLEANING  AND  DYEING  FURS,  SKIN  RUGS 

AND  MATS;  CLEANING  AND  DYEING  FEATHERS;  CLEANING 

AND  RENOVATING  FELT,  STRAW  AND  PANAMA  HATS; 

BLEACHING  AND  DYEING  STRAW  AND  STRAW  HATS; 

CLEANING  AND  DYEING  GLOVES;  GARMENT 

DYEING;  STRIPPING;  ANALYSIS  OF 

TEXTILE  FABRICS. 

EDITED  BY 

WILLIAM  T.  BRANNT, 

EDITOR  OF  "THE  TECHNO-CHEMICAL  RECEIPT  BOOK." 

FOURTH  EDITION,  REVISED  AND  ENLARGED. 

ILLUSTRATED  BY  FORTY-ONE  ENGRAVINGS. 

PHILADELPHIA: 

HENRY  CAREY  BAIRD  &  CO, 

INDUSTRIAL   PUBLISHERS,    BOOKSELLERS    AND   IMPORTERS, 

810  WALNUT  STREET. 
1911. 


THIS  BOOK  IS  DUE  ON  THE  LAST  DATE 
STAMPED  BELOW 


AN     INITIAL     FINE     OF     25     CENTS 

WILL  BE  ASSESSED  FOR  FAILURE  TO  RETURN 
THIS  BOOK  ON  THE  DATE  DUE.  THE  PENALTY 
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